Search results for "ja"

hakʷ nf. fire feu (14 groups, 39 languages) B
This root is an established Chadic root, though the exact form of the Proto-Central Chadic root is harder to pin down. The *kʷ is present in six of the group proto-languages, and has the reflex *gʷ in the Bata and Kotoko South groups, *ɣʷ in the Higi group, *ʔʷ in the Margi group, and *w in the Maroua, Kotoko Island, Kotoko North and Kotoko Centre groups, and in Mbara in the Musgum group. These are not established changes. There is strong evidence for an initial consonant, and an initial *h is reconstructed. The *h is present in the Daba, Margi, Kotoko North and Musgum groups. However, in many groups the *h has been lost completely. There are a few unusual reflexes. The Proto-Daba root is the result of metathesis. In the Mafa group, the *h has been lost, triggering compensatory prefixation in Mafa and compensatory reduplication in Cuvok.
1Proto-Bata *gʷɨ fire feu 1.1) Gude (Hoskinson) gúnə fire, heat. 1.2) Jimi (Djibi) gun Le feu 1.3) Sharwa (Gravina) rugʷə feu 1.4) Tsuvan (Johnston) gulkʷe le feu
2Proto-Daba *kʷahʷɨ fire feu 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) kʷɑhʷɑw fire feu 2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) kʷɑhu fire feu 2.2.1) Gavar (Viljoen) kʷɑhu (be) hot 2.3) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) kahaw fire feu 2.4) Daba (Lienhard) kùhū le feu, la lampe
3Proto-Mafa *hakʷa fire feu 3.1) Mafa (Barreteau) vogʷa feu 3.2) Cuvok (Gravina) kʷakʷaw fire feu
4Proto-Sukur *kʷɨ fire feu 4.1) Sukur (David) ku fire 4.2) Sukur (Thomas) ku fire; is the general term for fire.
5Proto-Hurza *akʷa fire feu 5.1) Mbuko (Gravina) uko fire, light, electricity feu, lumière, electricité 5.2) Vame (Kinnaird) ákʷā fire feu
6Proto-Margi *hɨʔʷɨ fire feu 6.1) Bura (Blench) uʼu Fire 6.2) Margi (Hoffman) uʼu fire 6.3) Margi South (Harley) uʼu fire 6.4) Kilba (Schuh) huʼu fire
7Proto-Mofu *akʷɨ fire feu 7.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) àkù fire feu 7.2) Muyang (Smith) ɑku fire le feu, le courant électrique 7.3) Moloko (Friesen) oko fire feu 7.4) Zulgo (Haller) akʷá feu m. 7.5) Gemzek (Sabatai) ako fire feu 7.6) Merey (Gravina) ako feu 7.7) Dugwor (Jubumna) akʷa fire feu 7.8) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) awaw fire feu, chaleur torride
8Proto-Maroua *awɨ fire feu 8.1) Mbazla (Tourneux) awu feu 8.1.1) Mbazla (SILSurvey) àwú fire feu
9Proto-Higi *ɣʷi fire feu 9.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) ɣʷi 1.fire.2.flower 9.2) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) ɣʷi fire 9.3) Kirya (Blench) ɣù fire 9.4) Psikye (Angelo) gʷu fire 9.5) Bana (Lienhard) ɣʷə̀ feu
10Proto-Kotoko Island *aw fire feu 10.1) Buduma (McKone) aəw fire feu 10.2) Buduma (McKone) âw feu.
11Proto-Kotoko North *hɨw fire feu 11.1) Afade (Allison) hɨw fire feu 11.2) Malgbe (Allison) u fire feu 11.3) Maltam (Allison) jau fire feu
12Proto-Kotoko Centre *awɨ fire feu 12.1) Mser (Allison) awu fire feu
13Proto-Kotoko South *agʷa fire feu 13.1) Mazera (Allison) ago fire feu
14Proto-Musgum *huu, akʷɨ fire feu 14.1) Mbara (Tourneux) huu fire feu 14.2) Muskum (Tourneux) aku feu, chaud
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hɨjɨ n. millet mil (8 groups, 14 languages) A syn: daw, vɨjaw.
This is one of three or more well-attested roots for millet, the staple crop in the region. The forms of the root are very consistent, with the primary differences being in the quality of the vowels. The root is found in languages from a wide area, and so may be reasonably old. However the existence of four different roots for the staple crop suggests that agriculture was not practiced by the earliest Central Chadic peoples.
1Proto-Bata *haj millet mil 1.1) Sharwa (Gravina) hajən graine 1.2) Tsuvan (Johnston) he le mil
2Proto-Sukur *hɨj millet mil 2.1) Sukur (Thomas) həi guineacorn; general term for guineacorn
3Proto-Hurza *ahaj millet mil 3.1) Vame (Kinnaird) āháj millet mil
4Proto-Mandara *hɨjɨ millet mil 4.1) Matal (Branger) hi, həj millet mil 4.2) Podoko (Swackhammer) hijá,-ə 1 grain 4.2.1) Podoko (Swackhammer) hijá,-ə 2 mil 4.3) Mandara (Fluckiger) hiá mil (m)
5Proto-Mofu *haj millet mil 5.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) hāj millet mil 5.2) Moloko (Friesen) haj millet mil
6Proto-Lamang *hɨja millet mil 6.1) Lamang (Wolff) xíjá millet 6.2) Hdi (Bramlett) hija sorghum, guinea corn le sorgho, le mil
7Proto-Higi *ha millet mil 7.1) Psikye (Angelo) xá millet, corn 7.2) Bana (Lienhard) xà mil (nom générique)
8Proto-Gidar *hajɨ millet mil 8.1) Gidar (Hungerford) hajja mil de saison de pluie, sorgho 8.2) Gidar (Schuh) haja/0 mil 8.3) Gidar (Schuh) haja/0 sorgho
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hɨᵐbɨw n. armpit aisselle (7 groups, 19 languages) B
This root is attested across a good range of groups. The initial *h has been lost in Bachama and Mbuko. In Bachama this has triggered compensatory reduplication. The final *w has been reanalysed as labialisation in Bachama and Proto-Margi. In Bachama the *w has fused with the *ᵐb to form /mʷ/, and in Proto-Margi it fused with *h to form *hʷ. All of these are common sporadic processes. In the Mofu group and in Mbuko the attested roots have extra material added, i.e. /jɨk/ or /ɗ/, possibly reflecting an underlying compound. The Proto-Mafa form comes from metathesis of the first two consonants, a sporadic change.
1Proto-Bata *mʷamʷa armpit aisselle 1.1) Bachama (Skinner) mʷamʷatœ armpit
2Proto-Daba *haᵐbɨwa armpit aisselle 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) sɑᵐbuwɑ armpit aisselle 2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) skɑ pɑpɑ armpit aisselle 2.3) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) pumpa armpit aisselle
3Proto-Mafa *ᵐbɨhaw armpit aisselle 3.1) Mafa (Ndokobai) hʷaɗ ᵐbəhaw aisselle 3.1.1) Mafa (Barreteau) ᵐbəhaw aisselle 3.2) Cuvok (Gravina) ᵐbuwa armpit aisselle
4Proto-Hurza *aᵐbajakʷ ʸ armpit aisselle 4.1) Mbuko (Gravina) aᵐbijœk armpit aisselle
5Proto-Margi *hʷɨᵐbɨ armpit aisselle 5.1) Margi (Hoffman) huᵐbu armpit 5.2) Kilba (Schuh) uᵐbu armpit
6Proto-Mofu *hɨᵐbɨɗ ʸ, hʷɨᵐbajak ʸ, ᵐbɨwa armpit aisselle 6.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) hùᵐbùwáj armpit aisselle 6.2) Moloko (Friesen) ᵐbejewk armpit aisselle 6.3) Zulgo (Haller) hìᵐbiɗ aisselle f. 6.4) Gemzek (Sabatai) həᵐbeɗ armpit aisselle 6.5) Merey (Gravina) huᵐbejək armpit aisselle 6.5.1) Merey (Gravina) huᵐbejək armpit aisselle 6.6) Dugwor (Jubumna) huᵐbajekʷ armpit aisselle 6.7) Mofu North (Barreteau) ᵐbúwā aisselle 6.8) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) ᵐbəwá aisselle 6.8.1) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) sí-ᵐbəwá aisselle
7Proto-Higi *haᵐbɨwɨ armpit aisselle 7.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) haᵐbuwə armpit 7.2) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) haⁿduwa armpit
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hɨmɨɗ ʸ nm. wind vent (14 groups, 37 languages) A cf: taɬ.
This root is attested across the Central Chadic languages. The basic meaning is 'wind', but is extended to cover the concept 'cold' in many languages. The initial *h is realised as *s in several groups. This does not correspond with any known regular change, but it may be due to spreading of a cognate form from another branch of Chadic. The root *kʷɨhɨm 'mouse' shows similar distribution of *s and *h. The initial /h/ in Buduma is probably the result of a regular change *s→h in that language, rather than a reflex of Proto-Central Chadic *h. The *h has been sporadically lost in many languages, and has resulted in compensatory reduplication in Cuvok and the two Mofu languages. *m is sporadically realised as *ᵐb in a few languages. There is evidence for the palatalisation prosody from almost all groups where it is expected. In Gidar the /j/ is the regular result of the palatalisation of *ɗ.
1Proto-Bata *miɗɨ wind vent 1.1) Gude (Hoskinson) mə̀ɗá -ə air, wind 1.2) Jimi (Djibi) ᵐbiɗən Vent, souffle
2Proto-Daba *mɨɗ ʸ wind vent 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) mɑɗ (be) cold (objects) (être) froid 2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) miɗ wind (n) vent 2.2.1) Gavar (Viljoen) miɗ air air 2.3) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) maɗ (be) cold (objects) (être) froid 2.4) Daba (Lienhard) mīɗ le vent, le souffle, la vie
3Proto-Mafa *mamaɗ ʸ wind vent 3.1) Cuvok (Gravina) memeɗ wind vent 3.1.1) Cuvok (Gravina) memeɗ cold froid
4Proto-Sukur *mɨɗ ʸ wind vent 4.1) Sukur (David) míɗ wind 4.2) Sukur (Thomas) miɗ wind
5Proto-Hurza *hɨmaɗe wind vent 5.1) Mbuko (Gravina) maɗ wind; cold vent, froid 5.2) Ndreme (Kinnaird) hùmàɗɛ̀ 5.3) Vame (Kinnaird) hə̀màɗè vent
6Proto-Margi *samaɗ ʸ wind vent 6.1) Bura (Blench) ʃaᵐbar Cold 6.1.1) Bura (Blench) ʃaᵐbar Wind 6.2) Margi (Hoffman) jamaɗə wind, cold 6.3) Margi South (Harley) jəᵐbaɗu wind
7Proto-Mofu *hɨmɨɗ ʸ wind vent 7.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) àmàɗ wind vent 7.2) Muyang (Smith) ɑməɗ air ; wind ; cold ; breath vent; froid 7.3) Mada (Nkoumou) amaɗ vent 7.4) Moloko (Friesen) həmaɗ wind, cold vent; froid 7.5) Zulgo (Haller) híᵐbíɗ vent m. 7.6) Gemzek (Sabatai) həᵐbeɗ le vent 7.7) Dugwor (Jubumna) həmeɗ wind vent 7.8) Mofu North (Barreteau) mèmə̀ɗ vent 7.8.1) Mofu North (Barreteau) mèmə̀ɗ froid 7.9) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) memeɗ vent, froid
8Proto-Maroua *hɨmɨɗ ʸ wind vent 8.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) himiɗ(i) vent, froid 8.1.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) himiɗ(i) se dégonfler 8.2) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) himeɗ wind vent 8.3) Mbazla (Tourneux) simeɗ vent 8.3.1) Mbazla (Tourneux) tʃimeɗ vent
9Proto-Kotoko Island *haᵐbaɗɨ wind vent 9.1) Buduma (McKone) həaᵐbaɗə; lieni cold weather temps froid 9.2) Buduma (McKone) hâᵐbaɗə le froid. 9.3) Buduma (McKone) hâᵐbəɗa froid.
10Proto-Kotoko North *samaɗe wind vent 10.1) Afade (Allison) semaɗe cold weather temps froid 10.2) Mpade (Allison) sɨ́máɗɨ̀ cold weather temps froid 10.3) Malgbe (Allison) tʃʼamare cold weather temps froid
11Proto-Kotoko Centre *sɨmaɗɨ wind vent 11.1) Lagwan (Allison) ʃima cold weather temps froid 11.1.1) Lagwan (Allison) sɨmaɗɨ; ɣʷava wind vent 11.2) Mser (Allison) sɨmaɗi cold weather temps froid
12Proto-Kotoko South *sɨmaɗe wind vent 12.1) Zina (Odden) asmaɗə; màgàwà wind vent 12.2) Mazera (Allison) sɨmɗe wind vent
13Proto-Musgum *sɨmaɗ ʸ wind vent 13.1) Vulum (Tourneux) sɨmer vent 13.1.1) Vulum (Tourneux) simer vent 13.2) Mbara (Tourneux) sumʼdaj cold 13.2.1) Mbara (Tourneux) sumʼdaj wind 13.3) Muskum (Tourneux) simet vent
14Proto-Gidar *sɨmja wind vent 14.1) Gidar (Hungerford) səmja vent, froid 14.2) Gidar (Schuh) səmja froid 14.3) Gidar (Schuh) səmja vent 14.4) Gidar (Hungerford) sɨmja froid
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hɨpaɬ ʸ nf. shoulder épaule (8 groups, 19 languages) B rel. to: paɮa.
This root is probably related to the root *paɮa 'upper arm', though the lack of regularity in the reflexes of the lateral fricatives in the two roots indicates that these should not be considered as a single root, but as two related forms deriving from one root. The initial *h is lost in many languages, and this loss has triggered compensatory reduplication in many cases. There is evidence for the palatalisation prosody from almost all groups. There was metathesis of *p and *ɬ in the Mandara group, a sporadic process.
1Proto-Mafa *paɬpaɬ ʸ shoulder épaule 1.1) Mafa (Ndokobai) peɬpeɬ epaule
2Proto-Sukur *tapaɬ shoulder épaule 2.1) Sukur (Thomas) tapaɬ shoulder; either of the two parts of the body between the top of each arm and the neck.
3Proto-Hurza *paɬpaɬ ʸ shoulder épaule 3.1) Vame (Kinnaird) péɬpēɬ shoulder épaule
4Proto-Margi *apaɬa shoulder épaule 4.1) Bura (Blench) páɬáhà Shoulder Also pátláhù 4.2) Margi South (Harley) papaɮa shoulder 4.3) Kilba (Schuh) paɬəka shoulder
5Proto-Mandara *aɬapɨ ʸ shoulder épaule 5.1) Matal (Branger) dzàbàɬa᷆ shoulder épaule 5.2) Mandara (Fluckiger) náhjápéhjápé épaule (f) 5.3) Malgwa (Löhr) nahjepe shoulder 5.3.1) Malgwa (Löhr) lahjepe shoulder 5.4) Glavda (Owens) açá shoulder 5.4.1) Glavda (Nghagyiva) āçápa shoulder
6Proto-Mofu *hɨpaɬ ʸ shoulder épaule 6.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) mə̄pépéɬ shoulder épaule 6.2) Muyang (Smith) həpɑɬ both the shoulders, the part of the body that can be moved les épaules (qu'on peut hausser) 6.3) Mada (Nkoumou) ahpaɬ epaule 6.4) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) pepéɬ omoplate, épaule
7Proto-Maroua *papaɮ ʸ shoulder épaule 7.1) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) pepeɮ shoulder épaule
8Proto-Higi *baɮa shoulder épaule 8.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) báɮa shoulder 8.2) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) ᵐbaɮa shoulder 8.3) Kirya (Blench) bàbàɮà shoulder 8.4) Bana (Lienhard) báɮí épaule
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hɨrɨdz ʸ nf. scorpion scorpion (12 groups, 35 languages) B
This root is found across almost all the Central Chadic groups, but is not found in any of the Kotoko groups. The initial *h is lost in several languages, a common sporadic change. In Mafa this has been compensated for by the addition of a prefixed /v/, a common process. The *r is expected to have the reflex *l in the groups of the North sub-branch, but this is not the case. The implication is that the root did not come into the languages from Proto-Central Chadic. The breadth of the attestations, and the changes found in the reflexes imply that the root is old. It may have existed in the South sub-branch, and spread from there into the North sub-branch. The *dz has the reflexes *ts, *d and *z. The *d in Proto-Musgum and *z in Proto-Gidar are regular, but there are no consistent patterns to the reflexes of *dz in other groups. The palatalisation prosody is retained in almost all groups where it is expected.
1Proto-Bata *hɨradzɨ ʸ scorpion scorpion 1.1) Gude (Hoskinson) àrə̀də̀də́nə scorpion. 1.2) Jimi (Djibi) redzən 1 - Varan; 2 - Scorpion 1.3) Sharwa (Gravina) ardə scorpion 1.4) Tsuvan (Johnston) hərdekən le scorpion
2Proto-Daba *rɨdzɨ ʸ scorpion scorpion 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) redʒe scorpion scorpion 2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) rədʒi scorpion scorpion 2.3) Daba (Lienhard) īrdì le scorpion
3Proto-Mafa *haradz scorpion scorpion 3.1) Mafa (Ndokobai) varadza scorpion 3.2) Cuvok (Gravina) rats scorpion scorpion
4Proto-Sukur *ᵐbɨrdaj scorpion scorpion 4.1) Sukur (Thomas) ᵐbərdai scorpion; a small creature like an insects with sex legs, two front claws and a long tail that curves over it's back and can a poisonous sting.
5Proto-Hurza *rɨdza ʸ scorpion scorpion 5.1) Mbuko (Gravina) rədʒe scorpion scorpion
6Proto-Margi *hɨda ʸ scorpion scorpion 6.1) Bura (Blench) hidi Scorpion 6.2) Kilba (Schuh) ida/a scorpion
7Proto-Mandara *radzɨ ʸ scorpion scorpion 7.1) Matal (Branger) ālìʒ scorpion scorpion 7.2) Podoko (Swackhammer) raⁿdzá,-ə scorpion 7.3) Mandara (Fluckiger) érdze scorpion (m) 7.4) Malgwa (Löhr) ərdza scorpion 7.5) Glavda (Owens) ard scorpion 7.5.1) Glavda (Nghagyiva) árd͡za scorpion
8Proto-Mofu *hɨrɨda ʸ scorpion scorpion 8.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) árdà scorpion scorpion 8.2) Muyang (Smith) ɑⁿdrɑ (small yellow) scorpion sorte de petit scorpion jaune 8.3) Moloko (Friesen) harats scorpion scorpion 8.4) Zulgo (Haller) hìrde scorpion m. 8.5) Gemzek (Sabatai) hərdede scorpion scorpion 8.6) Merey (Gravina) hərdəde scorpion scorpion 8.7) Dugwor (Jubumna) arəde scorpion scorpion 8.8) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) aráts scorpion scorpion
9Proto-Maroua *arats ʸ scorpion scorpion 9.1) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) aratʃe scorpion scorpion 9.2) Mbazla (Tourneux) ʼaretʃ scorpion 9.2.1) Mbazla (Tourneux) ʼariʃ scorpion
10Proto-Lamang *rɨda scorpion scorpion 10.1) Lamang (Wolff) ə́rdà scorpion 10.2) Hdi (Bramlett) rəda scorpion le scorpion
11Proto-Musgum *hɨrɨdɨw scorpion scorpion 11.1) Vulum (Tourneux) hɨrduu scorpion 11.2) Mulwi (Tourneux) hirduu scorpion 11.3) Mbara (Tourneux) hurtuwaj scorpion 11.4) Muskum (Tourneux) hurut scorpion
12Proto-Gidar *hɨrzɨja scorpion scorpion 12.1) Gidar (Hungerford) hərzija scorpion
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hɨwɨj v. to run courir (10 groups, 21 languages) B
This root is found in many different groups. In Mbuko and Sukur the *h and *w are two separate consonants, rather than the single labialised consonant found in almost all the other languages. The process of fusion of *w with another consonant to form a labialised consonant is very common, and there are no clear cases of the separation of the labialisation from the consonant in this way, so the reconstruction with separate *h and *w is preferred.
1Proto-Bata *hʷɨj run courir 1.1) Jimi (Djibi) hujən Courir ;
2Proto-Daba *hɨj run courir 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) hej run courir 2.1.1) Buwal (Viljoen) hej flee s'enfuir 2.1.2) Buwal (Viljoen) hej spread (disease, fire) se répandre, s'étendre 2.2) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) hi run courir
3Proto-Mafa *hʷaj run courir 3.1) Mafa (Barreteau) ha courir 3.2) Cuvok (Gravina) hʷaj run courir
4Proto-Sukur *hɨwi run courir 4.1) Sukur (David) huwi run, to 4.2) Sukur (Thomas) hui run
5Proto-Hurza *haw run courir 5.1) Mbuko (Gravina) haw run; flee courir; fuir 5.1.1) Mbuko (Gravina) haw se précipiter sur
6Proto-Margi *hʷi run courir 6.1) Bura (Blench) hʷi To run 6.1.1) Bura (Blench) huhʷi To run (Sustained action) 6.2) Margi (Hoffman) wi to run 6.3) Margi South (Hoffman) hʷi to run 6.4) Kilba (Hoffman) hʷi to run 6.4.1) Kilba (Schuh) hʷi/i handle (hoe etc.) 6.4.2) Kilba (Schuh) hʷi/i run
7Proto-Mandara *hʷaj run courir 7.1) Matal (Branger) màhʷɔ̄jāj run courir
8Proto-Mofu *hʷaj run courir 8.1) Merey (Gravina) hʷaj run courir, s'enfuir 8.2) Dugwor (Jubumna) mahʷaj run courir 8.3) Mofu North (Barreteau) máhʷāj courir 8.4) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) hʷ(á) courir, fuir, s'enfuir 8.4.1) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) hʷ(á) rouler vite (voiture, mobylette) 8.4.2) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) hʷ(á) dérouler une botte de paille (un sekko)
9Proto-Lamang *hʷaj run courir 9.1) Hdi (Bramlett) hʷajaj to run courir
10Proto-Higi *hʷi run courir 10.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) hʷehʷə run 10.2) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) hoho run 10.3) Kirya (Blench) hʷji to run 10.4) Psikye (Angelo) xʷe run
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hʷaɗik n. earth terre (12 groups, 24 languages) C
The basic meaning of this root is the soil or earth that the ground is made from. The evidence for *hʷ rather than *h comes from Cuvok, Mbuko and Lamang. In Cuvok the *h component has been lost, resulting in /w/. In Mbuko the labialisation is reanalysed as the labialisation prosody, and in Lamang it has resulted in /o/. These are common sporadic processes. In several languages the *ɗ and *i have fused, resulting in *j. In the Kilba the result is /ʔʲ/. In Kamwe-Futu and Bana the *i has caused the palatalisation of the *h. *k has been lost in all groups except for the Daba, Mafa and Hurza, which is not a regular process. The final /k/ in Hdi is a frozen suffix, and not a reflex of *k. The *i has direct support from the Margi, Lamang and Higi groups.
1Proto-Daba *hajak earth terre 1.1) Buwal (Viljoen) hɑjɑk ground, land sol 1.1.1) Buwal (Viljoen) hɑjɑk dirt, soil sol 1.1.2) Buwal (Viljoen) hɑjɑk country, ethnic area pays 1.2) Gavar (Viljoen) hɑjɑk dirt, soil terre 1.2.1) Gavar (Viljoen) hɑjɑk ground, land sol 1.2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) hɑjɑk country, ethnic area pays 1.3) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) hajak dirt, soil terre, sol 1.3.1) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) hajak ground, land terre 1.4) Daba (Lienhard) hàjə̄k ʼ la terre, le pays
2Proto-Mafa *wɨjak earth terre 2.1) Cuvok (Gravina) ujak terre
3Proto-Tera *ɣaj earth terre 3.1) Tera (Newman) ɣaj earth 3.1.1) Tera (Newman) ɣaj ground 3.1.2) Tera (Newman) ɣaj town 3.2) Nyimatli (Harley) ɣai dirt, soil
4Proto-Sukur *haɗ earth terre 4.1) Sukur (Thomas) haɗ ground
5Proto-Hurza *hʷigaj earth terre 5.1) Mbuko (Gravina) jugo earth la terre 5.2) Vame (Kinnaird) hígàj ground ; earth sol ; terre
6Proto-Margi *hɨɗi earth terre 6.1) Bura (Blench) hi Earth, soil, dirt 6.2) Kilba (Schuh) həʼi earth 6.2.1) Kilba (Schuh) həʼi land
7Proto-Mandara *haja earth terre 7.1) Mandara (Fluckiger) háhá terre (f) 7.2) Malgwa (Löhr) haha earth, soil, ground 7.3) Dghwede (Frick) xaja earth
8Proto-Mofu *ahɨɗ earth terre 8.1) Zulgo (Haller) àhə̀ɗ terre f., sol m.
9Proto-Maroua *haj earth terre 9.1) Mbazla (Tourneux) haj terre
10Proto-Lamang *hʷaɗi earth terre 10.1) Lamang (Wolff) hoɗo ground, earth 10.2) Hdi (Bramlett) haɗik soil, earth la terre
11Proto-Higi *hɨɗi earth terre 11.1) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) hjiɗi ground; land; earth 11.2) Kirya (Blench) hàhàj soil 11.3) Psikye (Angelo) xeɗí dirt, earth, ground 11.4) Bana (Lienhard) xjìɗì terre, pays
12Proto-Musgum *jahaj earth terre 12.1) Mbara (Tourneux) jahaj earth terre
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hʷɨɗɨɬ ʸ nm., v. cough tousser (14 groups, 33 languages) B rel. to: gʷɨɗɨɮ.
This root may represent the noun or the verb. It is related to the root for 'belch', with belching being a voiced version of coughing. The root is difficult to reconstruct. The initial *hʷ is retained in Proto-Mandara and Proto-Musgum, has the reflex *w in Proto-Mafa, Proto-Kotoko South and Proto-Gidar., and in Proto-Maroua the reflex is *h. These are all common sporadic changes. In Proto-Tera it has the reflex *kʷ, which is an unestablished change. In Mbuko, the *hʷ is lost, and triggers the compensatory reduplication of /ɮ/. The *ɗ is lost in many groups, also triggering compensatory reduplication in languages of the Meri sub-group. Loss of these consonants and the resulting compensatory reduplication is a common sporadic process. In Proto-Sukur, Proto-Maroua and Proto-Gidar *ɗ has the reflex *r, which is an unestablished change. In other groups the glottal component has fused with the reflex of *hʷ. In Bura *w and *ɗ have fused to give *ɓ→b. The same process of *w+*ɗ→ɓ has taken place in Muyang and Moloko. In Kilba the process is *w+*ɗ→ʔʷ. These are common sporadic processes. In Zina the *ɗ was affected by the palatalisation prosody at some earlier time, resulting in the regular *ɗʲ→j. In the Higi group, the change is *ɗʲ→ʔʲ. In Mpade *hʷ has become *kʷ (an unestablished change), and this has fused with *ɗ to form the ejective /kʼʷ/. *ɬ has the regular reflex *ɮ in the South sub-group, though Mafa has the irregular reflex /ɬ/. There are also regular changes in Mpade *ɬ→ʃ, in Mser and Zina *ɬ→s, and in Mandara, Malgwa and Glavda *ɬʲ→hʲ. The palatalisation prosody is retained in several groups. There are also several instances where sporadic metathesis has taken place.
1Proto-Mafa *wɨɬa cough toux 1.1) Mafa (Ndokobai) wuɬa toux
2Proto-Tera *kʷɨɮa cough toux 2.1) Tera (Newman) kuɮa cough 2.2) Nyimatli (Harley) kuɮa cough (v)
3Proto-Sukur *ɮar ʸ cough tousser 3.1) Sukur (Thomas) ɮjar cough; to force out air suddenly and noicely through your throat, for when you have a cold.
4Proto-Hurza *ɮɨɮah ʸ cough toux 4.1) Mbuko (Gravina) ɮəɮe(h) cough toux
5Proto-Margi *wɨɗɨɬa cough toux 5.1) Bura (Blench) buɬa Cough 5.1.1) Bura (Blench) buɬa To cough 5.2) Kilba (Schuh) ʼuɬa/a cough(ing)
6Proto-Mandara *hʷɨɬah ʸ cough toux 6.1) Matal (Branger) mabəɮəhʷaj cough tousser 6.2) Podoko (Swackhammer) kuɬáha tousser 6.3) Mandara (Fluckiger) úhjá tousser 6.4) Malgwa (Löhr) ŋʷihja cough 6.5) Glavda (Nghagyiva) wúçᵊga cough (v) 6.6) Dghwede (Frick) wuɮaxa to cough
7Proto-Mofu *hʷɨɗɨɬ ʸ cough toux 7.1) Proto-Tokombere *wɨɗɨɬaj cough toux 7.2) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) ɗə̄ɬáj cough tousser 7.3) Muyang (Smith) ɓəɬɑj cough tousser 7.4) Moloko (Friesen) ɓəɬaj cough tousser 7.5) Proto-Meri *ɗɨɮah ʸ cough toux 7.6) Zulgo (Haller) àɮàh toux f. 7.7) Gemzek (Sabatai) mege ɮəɮah cough (v) tousser 7.8) Merey (Gravina) ɮəɮeh cough (v) tousser 7.9) Dugwor (Jubumna) megej ɮəlɮe cough (v) tousser
8Proto-Maroua *hɨrɬa ʸ cough toux 8.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) hirɬe toux, tuberculose 8.2) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) gi irɬe cough (v) tousser
9Proto-Higi *ʔʲɨɬa cough toux 9.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) ʼjáɬá Cough 9.1.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) ʼjathla cough 9.2) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) tsaiɬa cough 9.3) Psikye (Angelo) ʼjiɬá cough 9.4) Bana (Lienhard) ʼjiɬá la toux, la grippe, le catarrhe
10Proto-Kotoko North *hʷɨɗɨɬa cough toux 10.1) Afade (Allison) ɗɨɬa; ɗɨɬaun cough (v) tousser 10.2) Mpade (Allison) là kʼʷàʃán cough (v) tousser 10.2.1) Mpade (Allison) kʼʷàʃán cough toux 10.3) Malgbe (Allison) ɗaɬawun; ɗaɬa cough (v) tousser
11Proto-Kotoko Centre *wɨɗɨɬa cough toux 11.1) Lagwan (Allison) uɬawun cough (v) tousser 11.2) Mser (Allison) ɗasa cough (v) tousser
12Proto-Kotoko South *wasja cough toux 12.1) Zina (Odden) wàsjà cough (v) tousser
13Proto-Musgum *hʷaɬ cough toux 13.1) Mulwi (Tourneux) huɬi tousser 13.1.1) Mulwi (Tourneux) hoɬ toux 13.2) Mbara (Tourneux) ʼoɬ cough
14Proto-Gidar *wɨrɬa cough tousser 14.1) Gidar (Hungerford) ɨdiwərɬa tousser, toux
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hʷɨtaɗ ʸ nf. skin peau (5 groups, 9 languages) B
The meaning of this root is the skin of a human or an animal. *hʷ is realised as /gʷ/ in Mbuko (an unestablished change). The *ɗ has been lost in all but two languages, which is a common sporadic process.
1Proto-Mafa *hʷɨtaɗ ʸ skin peau 1.1) Mafa (Barreteau) hútéɗ peau
2Proto-Hurza *gʷɨta skin peau 2.1) Mbuko (Gravina) guta hide, skin peau (déjà travaillée); la corde faite d'une peau
3Proto-Mofu *hʷɨtaɗ ʸ skin peau 3.1) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) huteɗ cuir, ceinture de cuir ; morceau de peau
4Proto-Lamang *hʷɨta skin peau 4.1) Hdi (Bramlett) huta skin la peau
5Proto-Higi *hʷəta skin peau 5.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) wtå skin 5.2) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) wta skin (of man) 5.3) Kirya (Blench) twá skin 5.4) Psikye (Angelo) xʷə́ta skin 5.5) Bana (Lienhard) xʷtá peau, cuir
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ja nf. mother mère (6 groups, 10 languages) B syn: mama.
This root is borrowed from Kanuri, and is found only in the groups with close contact with Kanuri.
1Proto-Mandara *ɨja mother mère 1.1) Matal (Branger) əja, ija mother mère
2Proto-Kotoko Island *jɨ mother mère 2.1) Buduma (McKone) jaj mère. 2.2) Buduma (McKone) jə mère, yi. 2.3) Buduma (McKone) ji mère (s). 2.4) Buduma (McKone) ji; jaj mother mère
3Proto-Kotoko North *ɨja mother mère 3.1) Afade (Allison) ija mother mère 3.2) Mpade (Allison) já mother mère 3.3) Malgbe (Allison) ija mother mère
4Proto-Kotoko Centre *ɨja mother mère 4.1) Lagwan (Allison) ɨma; ija mother mère 4.2) Mser (Allison) ija; mɨ tɨrɨn mother mère
5Proto-Kotoko South *ɨja mother mère 5.1) Zina (Odden) íjà mother mère 5.2) Mazera (Allison) ija mother mère
6Proto-Musgum *ʔɨja mother mère 6.1) Mbara (Tourneux) ʼija mother mère
7Kanuri jâ mother mère
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kɨdɨm nm. crocodile crocodile (11 groups, 33 languages) C syn: rigɨ.
This well-attested root is surprisingly difficult to reconstruct. It is probably borrowed from Nilo-Saharan at an early stage of the history of Central Chadic, but does not come directly from the Kanuri 'karam'. The initial *k has the unestablished reflexes *g in Mbuko and some of the Mofu group languages, and *h in Proto-Musgum. *d is reconstructed as the second consonant. There was a change of word-medial *d→r in the North sub-branch, though the *d is not retained in Proto-Bata or Proto-Sukur. The presence of *d coincides with the presence of *g. The original root may have been *gɨdɨm, and developed into *kɨrɨm in the North sub-branch, and then the two competing roots spread between languages at a later stage. Alternatively, two different cognates may have been borrowed into Central Chadic from different directions. In Proto-Mandara, the final *m has become *w as part of a regular change.
1Proto-Bata *kɨrɨm crocodile crocodile 1.1) Gude (Hoskinson) kə́rə́má -ə crocodile 1.2) Jimi (Djibi) kərəmən Crocodile
2Proto-Mafa *kɨrdam, gɨdam crocodile crocodile 2.1) Mafa (Ndokobai) kərdam crocodile 2.2) Cuvok (Gravina) gədam crocodile crocodile
3Proto-Sukur *kɨlɨm crocodile crocodile 3.1) Sukur (David) kəlum crocodile 3.2) Sukur (Thomas) kələm crocodile; a large reptile with a long tail, hard skin, big jaws and lives in rivers.
4Proto-Hurza *gɨdam crocodile crocodile 4.1) Mbuko (Gravina) gədam crocodile crocodile
5Proto-Margi *hɨm, karam crocodile crocodile 5.1) Margi (Hoffman) həm crocodile 5.2) Margi South (Harley) həm crocodile 5.3) Kilba (Schuh) karam crocodile
6Proto-Mandara *kɨrwɨ ʸ crocodile crocodile 6.1) Matal (Branger) kʷədəw, kudu crocodile crocodile 6.2) Mandara (Fluckiger) kjérrúe caïman (m), crocodile, alligator 6.3) Malgwa (Löhr) kirwe crocodile 6.4) Glavda (Nghagyiva) kírwa crocodile 6.4.1) Glavda (Owens) kír crocodile
7Proto-Mofu *kɨrɨm, gɨdam crocodile crocodile 7.1) Muyang (Smith) kurᵐbu Nile crocodile crocodile 7.2) Mada (Nkoumou) akrám crocodile 7.3) Moloko (Friesen) kəraᵐba crocodile cayman crocodile 7.4) Zulgo (Haller) kə̀rəm crocodile m. 7.5) Gemzek (Sabatai) kəram crocodile crocodile 7.6) Merey (Gravina) gədam crocodile crocodile 7.7) Dugwor (Jubumna) gədam crocodile crocodile 7.8) Mofu North (Barreteau) gə̀dàm crocodile 7.9) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) gədem crocodile
8Proto-Maroua *hɨrɨm ʷ crocodile crocodile 8.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) hurum caiþman,crocodile 8.2) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) hurom crocodile crocodile 8.3) Mbazla (Tourneux) hurum crocodile
9Proto-Lamang *kɨram crocodile crocodile 9.1) Lamang (Wolff) kəram crocodile 9.2) Hdi (Bramlett) kəram crocodile le crocodile
10Proto-Higi *kɨlɨm crocodile crocodile 10.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) kə́lmí crocodile 10.2) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) kələməᵑg crocodile 10.3) Kirya (Blench) hə̀lə́mə́ crocodile 10.4) Bana (Lienhard) kə́lə́ᵐbə́ crocodile, claman
11Proto-Musgum *hɨrɨm ʷ crocodile crocodile 11.1) Vulum (Tourneux) horum crocodile 11.2) Mbara (Tourneux) hurum crocodile crocodile
12Kanuri kárám crocodile crocodile
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kɨja nm. moon lune (7 groups, 23 languages) A syn: tira.
The basic sense of this root is 'moon', but it has the extended sense 'month' i.e. a period of time, in almost all languages. This is one of two roots for 'moon', with *tira being used widely across Chadic languages. The *k is realised as *h in Proto-Margi, an unestablished change, and also in Zina where this is a regular change. In some Mofu group languages the *j has triggered the creation of the palatalisation prosody, which is a common sporadic process.
1Proto-Mafa *kɨja moon lune 1.1) Mafa (Barreteau) kija lune 1.2) Cuvok (Gravina) kija moon lune 1.2.1) Cuvok (Gravina) kija month mois
2Proto-Hurza *kɨja moon lune 2.1) Mbuko (Gravina) kija moon; month lune; mois 2.2) Vame (Kinnaird) kíjāhkē moon lune ; mois
3Proto-Margi *hja moon lune 3.1) Margi (Hoffman) hja moon, month 3.2) Margi South (Harley) hja moon 3.3) Kilba (Schuh) hja moon, month
4Proto-Mofu *kɨja moon lune 4.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) kʷìjò moon lune 4.1.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) kʷìjò month mois 4.2) Muyang (Smith) kiji moon ; month lune; mois 4.3) Mada (Nkoumou) màwɮàr já kja clarté de la lune 4.4) Moloko (Friesen) kəja moon lune 4.4.1) Moloko (Friesen) kəja month mois 4.5) Zulgo (Haller) kije lune f. 4.5.1) Zulgo (Haller) kije mois m. 4.6) Gemzek (Sabatai) kije month mois 4.6.1) Gemzek (Sabatai) kije moon lune 4.7) Merey (Gravina) kije month mois; lune 4.8) Dugwor (Jubumna) kija moon; month lune; mois 4.9) Mofu North (Barreteau) kija lune, mois 4.10) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) kijá lune 4.10.1) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) kijá mois (lunaire) 4.10.2) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) kijá saison
5Proto-Maroua *kɨja moon lune 5.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) kija lune, mois 5.1.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) kija début saison des pluies (IV-I) 5.1.2) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) kija 5.2) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) kija moon lune 5.2.1) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) kija month mois 5.3) Mbazla (SILSurvey) kíjáh moon lune 5.3.1) Mbazla (Tourneux) kija lune
6Proto-Kotoko Island *kɨja moon lune 6.1) Buduma (McKone) kija mois, nouvelle lune. 6.2) Buduma (McKone) kija; kija hə bohu month mois
7Proto-Kotoko South *kɨja moon lune 7.1) Zina (Odden) hìjà moon lune 7.1.1) Zina (Odden) hìjà month mois 7.2) Mazera (Allison) kija moon lune
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kɨr v., n. steal voler (16 groups, 49 languages) B
This is one of the best attested roots in Central Chadic. Some of the entries are for the verb 'to steal', and some are for the nouns 'theft' and 'thief'. It is not clear which form is the basic root. The *k has the reflexes *h, *hʷ, *ɣ and *ɣʷ, which are unestablished reflexes. No labialisation is reconstructed since the support comes only from an unusual reflex in Lagwan, and from the Giziga languages where sporadic labialisation is common. It is not clear whether the proto-form had *h or *k, but *k is preferred as *k→h is more common than the opposite change in Central Chadic. The *r has the regular reflex *l in the North sub-branch and Proto-Daba. The *r in Proto-Kotoko North is an exception. In a few languages *r has the reflex /ɗ/, which is an unestablished change. There is some evidence for reconstructing *i, but the mix of noun and verb forms makes it difficult to reconstruct the vowels with confidence. For this reason the root is given the confidence level B rather than A.
1Proto-Bata *hɨr steal voler 1.1) Bata (Boyd) hɨ́r steal 1.2) Gude (Hoskinson) harə steal. 1.3) Jimi (Djibi) hərən Voler, dérober ; 1.4) Sharwa (Gravina) har Voler, dérober 1.4.1) Sharwa (Gravina) maharə, maharəʼəkə Voleur,euse 1.5) Tsuvan (Johnston) ahəlle le voleur
2Proto-Daba *hɨl steal voler 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) ŋhel steal voler (dérober) 2.1.1) Buwal (Viljoen) ŋhel thief voleur 2.1.2) Buwal (Viljoen) ŋhel theft vol 2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) ŋhəl steal voler (dérober) 2.2.1) Gavar (Viljoen) ŋhəl thief voleur 2.2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) ŋhəl theft 2.3) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) mihil theft vol 2.3.1) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) mihəl thief voleur 2.3.2) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) hil steal voler (dérober) 2.4) Daba (Lienhard) hə̄l faire ; lutter ; voler 2.5) MazagwayHidi (Noussi) həl vol
3Proto-Mafa *kɨr steal voler 3.1) Cuvok (Gravina) kəraw theft il faut voler 3.1.1) Cuvok (Gravina) kərej steal voler (dérober)
4Proto-Sukur *kɨr steal voler 4.1) Sukur (David) kər steal, to 4.2) Sukur (Thomas) kər steal; to take something from a person permission or without intending to return it or pay for it.
5Proto-Hurza *kɨra steal voler 5.1) Mbuko (Gravina) akar theft vol 5.1.1) Mbuko (Gravina) kəra to steal st voler 5.2) Vame (Kinnaird) ākár vol
6Proto-Margi *hila steal voler 6.1) Bura (Blench) hila Theft 6.1.1) Bura (Blench) hila To steal 6.2) Margi South (Harley) həl to steal 6.3) Kilba (Schuh) həla theft
7Proto-Mandara *ɣɨl steal voler 7.1) Matal (Branger) màd ɡə̀l steal voler 7.2) Mandara (Fluckiger) ílá voler 7.2.1) Mandara (Fluckiger) ílá vol (m) 7.3) Malgwa (Löhr) naŋəle thief 7.3.1) Malgwa (Löhr) ŋəla steal 7.4) Glavda (Nghagyiva) gla thief 7.4.1) Glavda (Owens) g thief 7.4.2) Glavda (Nghagyiva) ʁɨ́lᵊga steal 7.5) Dghwede (Frick) gəle thief
8Proto-Mofu *kɨl steal voler 8.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) àkàl vol 8.2) Mada (Nkoumou) akkal vol 8.3) Moloko (Friesen) akar robbery le vol 8.3.1) Moloko (Friesen) akar thief voleur 8.3.2) Moloko (Friesen) akar thief voleur 8.3.3) Moloko (Friesen) karaj steal voler; dérober 8.4) Zulgo (Haller) akə́l vol m. 8.5) Gemzek (Sabatai) akəl theft vol 8.5.1) Gemzek (Sabatai) mekəle steal voler (dérober) 8.6) Merey (Gravina) kəla steal voler (dérober) 8.6.1) Merey (Gravina) məkal theft vol, voleur 8.7) Dugwor (Jubumna) nəkal thief voleur 8.7.1) Dugwor (Jubumna) nəkal theft vol 8.7.2) Dugwor (Jubumna) mənəkəlej steal voler (dérober) 8.8) Mofu North (Barreteau) méhùlèj voler 8.8.1) Mofu North (Barreteau) méhùlèj dérober 8.8.2) Mofu North (Barreteau) máhàl voleur 8.9) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) lál voler, dérober, détourner 8.9.1) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) malaj voleur
9Proto-Maroua *hʷɨl steal voler 9.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) hul voler 9.1.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) hul mentir, faire son coup en douce, travailler par en dessous, fausseté, parler derrière pas franchement, calomnier 9.2) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) hul theft vol 9.3) Mbazla (Tourneux) laj voler (dérober) 9.3.1) Mbazla (SILSurvey) àlāíʼ steal voler (dérober)
10Proto-Lamang *ɣila steal voler 10.1) Lamang (Wolff) ɣila steal 10.1.1) Lamang (Wolff) ɣìlì theft 10.2) Hdi (Bramlett) ɣali thief le voleur
11Proto-Higi *ɣɨli steal voler 11.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) ɣəli to steal 11.1.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) ɣə̀lì steal 11.2) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) ɣirə thief 11.2.1) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) ɣire steal 11.3) Kirya (Blench) ɣə̀lə̀ steal 11.4) Bana (Lienhard) ɣ(ə̀)lí voler, piler
12Proto-Kotoko North *hir steal voler 12.1) Afade (Allison) hiʔi thief voleur 12.2) Mpade (Allison) háɗi thief voleur 12.3) Malgbe (Allison) hiru thief voleur
13Proto-Kotoko Centre *ɣʷɨj steal voler 13.1) Lagwan (Allison) musxui thief voleur 13.2) Mser (Allison) nɣej thief voleur
14Proto-Kotoko South *hɨla steal voler 14.1) Zina (Odden) àhə̀l thief voleur 14.2) Mazera (Allison) jale thief voleur
15Proto-Musgum *hɨl steal voler 15.1) Vulum (Tourneux) mihil vol
16Proto-Gidar *ɨhala steal voler 16.1) Gidar (Schuh) əhala voler (de voleur) 16.2) Gidar (Hungerford) ɨɨhala dérober, voler 16.3) Gidar (Hungerford) ɨ hala vol, derober
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kɨrakaɬ ʸ n. bone os (4 groups, 10 languages) C syn: ɗiɬ.
This root is found primarily in three groups that are currently unconnected (the Moloko word is borrowed from neighbouring Mbuko). However at some time in the past these groups may have been adjacent. The exact form of the original root is difficult to determine.
1Proto-Daba *kɨrɨᵑgɨɬ ʸ bone os 1.1) Buwal (Viljoen) kerəᵑgeɬ bone os 1.2) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) kirŋɡiɬ bone os 1.3) Daba (Lienhard) gèᵑgíríɮ l'os
2Proto-Hurza *kɨlakaɬ bone os 2.1) Mbuko (Gravina) kəlakaɬ bone os, bec 2.2) Vame (Kinnaird) āɬə̄ɬāk bone os
3Proto-Mofu *kɨlakaɬ bone os 3.1) Moloko (Friesen) kəlakaɬ bone os
4Proto-Musgum *kaɬka ʸ bone os 4.1) Mulwi (Tourneux) keɬke os 4.2) Vulum (Tourneux) keɬke os 4.3) Mbara (Tourneux) ᵑgiɬ bone os 4.4) Muskum (Tourneux) kɨɬɨt os
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kʷaɗah v. boil bouillir (9 groups, 20 languages) A
The basic sense of this word is to cook by boiling. In most cases it is a transitive verb with a person being the agent and the liquid being the patient. *kʷ is retained in all groups, though the labialisation has been lost in a few languages (a sporadic process). The *ɗ→r in Tera is an unestablished process. *h is widely retained, which is unusual, and has the irregular reflex /s/ in Bachama. Two groups have palatalisation in the forms given, but this may be a property of the citation form that is used rather than of the root itself.
1Proto-Bata *kʷaɗasa ʸ boil bouillir 1.1) Bachama (Skinner) kʷaɗjasa bubble
2Proto-Daba *kʷɨɗah ʸ boil bouillir 2.1) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) kjdeh boil (food) bouillir (la nourriture) 2.2) Daba (Lienhard) kùɗa̍j bouillir un liquide
3Proto-Mafa *kʷɨɗaha boil bouillir 3.1) Cuvok (Gravina) kuɗaha boil bouillir (la nourriture)
4Proto-Tera *kʷɨɗah boil bouillir 4.1) Tera (Newman) kuraxi boil 4.1.1) Nyimatli (Harley) kuɮakh boil (water), bubble up
5Proto-Hurza *kʷaɗah boil bouillir 5.1) Mbuko (Gravina) kʷaɗah to boil, dilute bouillir, diluer 5.1.1) Vame (Kinnaird) kʷāɗáhā boil ; simmer bouillir
6Proto-Margi *kʷɨdu boil bouillir 6.1) Bura (Blench) kudu Boil
7Proto-Mandara *kʷaɗah boil bouillir 7.1) Podoko (Swackhammer) kʷaɗáha bouillir, cuire dans de l'eau bouillante 7.2) Malgwa (Löhr) kʷaɗa boil
8Proto-Mofu *kʷaɗah boil bouillir 8.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) kʷàɗèhèŋ bouillir 8.1.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) kʷàɗèhèŋ cuire longtemps 8.2) Muyang (Smith) koɗɑhɑj boil (trs) cuire; faire bouillir 8.3) Mada (Nkoumou) mákʷàɗàh cuire (faire-, mijoter longtemps) 8.4) Zulgo (Haller) kʷàɗàh bouillir, bouilloner 8.5) Gemzek (Sabatai) mekʷeɗehe bouillir 8.6) Dugwor (Jubumna) məkʷoɗehej ( jam ) bubble up, boil (water) bouillonner (l'eau) 8.7) Mofu North (Barreteau) mékʷèɗèhèj bouillir
9Proto-Lamang *kʷaɗah boil bouillir 9.1) Lamang (Wolff) kʷaɗah boil, heat, cook 9.2) Hdi (Bramlett) kəɗahaj to boil bouillir
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kʷɨnɨj n. urine urine (13 groups, 31 languages) B
This root is well attested across the Central Chadic languages. The *kʷ is retained in most groups, but has the reflex *k in Proto-Hurza, Proto-Kotoko South and Proto-Gidar, a sporadic change. There is a regular *n→r change word-medially in Proto-Mandara, and a sporadic *n͏→r change in some of the Kotoko groups. This change also appears in the Mafa and Sukur data, where it is irregular. There is a subsequent unestablished *r→ɗ change, which gives the forms for Proto-Hurza, several Mofu group languages and Mazera. The distribution of the changes suggests that a certain degree of borrowing took place between languages. The *j has been vocalised in several languages, and in Gidar it is reanalysed as the palatalisation prosody, both of which are common sporadic processes.
1Proto-Mafa *kʷɨraj urine urine 1.1) Mafa (Ndokobai) kuraj urine
2Proto-Sukur *kʷɨr ʸ urine urine 2.1) Sukur (Thomas) miskuir urine
3Proto-Hurza *mɨkaɗaj urine urine 3.1) Mbuko (Gravina) məkaɗaj urine urine 3.2) Vame (Kinnaird) kə̄māɗáj, kumaɗaj (Afem) tribe ; descendant urine; tribu ; descendant
4Proto-Margi *kʷɨni urine urine 4.1) Bura (Blench) kini Urine 4.2) Kilba (Schuh) kunji urine
5Proto-Mandara *kʷɨrɨj urine urine 5.1) Matal (Branger) kᶷlāj urine urine 5.2) Podoko (Swackhammer) kure,-i urine 5.3) Mandara (Fluckiger) kúré urine (f) 5.4) Malgwa (Löhr) kure urine 5.5) Glavda (Owens) kur urine 5.5.1) Glavda (Nghagyiva) kùrìja urine
6Proto-Mofu *kʷɨnaj urine urine 6.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) kūnāj urine 6.2) Muyang (Smith) kʉɗiŋ urine urine 6.3) Mada (Nkoumou) kʷne urine 6.4) Moloko (Friesen) kʷənen urine urine 6.5) Zulgo (Haller) kʷìɗé urine f. 6.6) Gemzek (Sabatai) kuɗe urine urine 6.7) Merey (Gravina) kuɗe urine urine 6.7.1) Merey (Gravina) kuɗej urine 6.8) Dugwor (Jubumna) kuneŋ urine urine 6.9) Mofu North (Barreteau) kùràj urine 6.10) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) kuráj urine
7Proto-Maroua *kʷɨnaj urine urine 7.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) kʷanaj urine 7.2) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) kunaj urine urine 7.3) Mbazla (SILSurvey) kúnaíʼ urine urine 7.3.1) Mbazla (Tourneux) kunaj urine
8Proto-Lamang *kʷani urine urine 8.1) Hdi (Bramlett) kʷani urine l'urine
9Proto-Kotoko Island *kʷaraj urine urine 9.1) Buduma (McKone) koraj urine.
10Proto-Kotoko North *kʷɨre urine urine 10.1) Mpade (Allison) kúrè urine urine
11Proto-Kotoko Centre *kʷɨne urine urine 11.1) Lagwan (Allison) nkune urine urine 11.2) Mser (Allison) kure urine urine
12Proto-Kotoko South *kɨmaɗe urine urine 12.1) Mazera (Allison) kɨmaɗe urine urine
13Proto-Gidar *kɨna ʸ urine urine 13.1) Gidar (Hungerford) kine urine 13.2) Gidar (Schuh) kine/e urine
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kʷɨsap n. grass grass (6 groups, 12 languages) A syn: kʷɨzɨn ʸ.
This root probably had a different meaning from *kʷɨzɨn ʸ. The original sense may have referred to grassland as an area, rather than to the grass itself, or possibly to hay. The *kʷ has lost the labialisation component in Matal (a sporadic process), and is lost in Mbuko and Proto-Higi, which is an irregular process. *p was realised as [f] in Proto-Central Chadic in word-final position, and this appears in all the data.
1Proto-Daba *ᵑkʷɨsaf grass herbe 1.1) Buwal (Viljoen) ŋkusɑf grass herbe 1.2) Gavar (Viljoen) ŋkəsɑf grass herbe 1.3) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) ŋɡusof grass herbe
2Proto-Mafa *kʷɨsaf grass herbe 2.1) Cuvok (Gravina) kusaf blade (of grass) brin (d'herbe)
3Proto-Hurza *saf bush brousse 3.1) Mbuko (Gravina) saf bush brousse
4Proto-Mandara *kɨsaf grass herbe 4.1) Matal (Branger) ksaf, kəsaf grass herbe
5Proto-Mofu *kʷɨsaf grass herbe 5.1) Gemzek kəsaf bush country, rural area brousse, campagne 5.2) Merey kəsaf forest brousse, forêt 5.3) MofuNorth (Barreteau) kúsáf brousse 5.3.1) MofuNorth (Barreteau) kúsáf broussaille 5.3.2) MofuNorth (Barreteau) kúsáf brousse 5.4) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) kusaf brousse, herbes
6Proto-Higi *sɨfɨ grass herbe 6.1) Bana (Lienhard) sə́fə̀ herbes seches, jaune 6.2) Kirya (Blench) ʃafa bush
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kʷɨsɨm n. mouse souris (5 groups, 12 languages) B syn: katakam, kʷɨhɨm.
This root is cognate with *kʷɨhɨm, though it may come from a separate source. There is no known regular change that would account for *h to *s or vice versa. The root with *h is also found in East Chadic and this root with *s is also found in West Chadic. It is strange that this root is found in the more easterly Central Chadic languages.
1Proto-Mofu *gʷamso mouse souris 1.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) gʷàmsò souris ; rat roussard 1.2) Moloko (Friesen) gəmso field mouse, grey souris de brousse; gris
2Proto-Kotoko North *kʷɨsɨm mouse souris 2.1) Mpade (Allison) kusumu mouse souris 2.2) Malgbe (Allison) gbim mouse souris 2.3) Maltam (Allison) ɓɨsɨm mouse souris
3Proto-Kotoko Centre *kʷɨsɨm mouse souris 3.1) Lagwan (Allison) xsumi mouse souris 3.2) Mser (Allison) kusum mouse souris
4Proto-Kotoko South *kʷɨsɨm mouse souris 4.1) Zina (Odden) àksùm mouse souris 4.2) Mazera (Allison) kusɨme mouse souris
5Proto-Musgum *kɨsɨm ʷ mouse souris 5.1) Vulum (Tourneux) kusum souris 5.2) Mbara (Tourneux) kusum mouse souris 5.3) Muskum (Tourneux) guzum souris
6Hausa kúusù /// kuusùu, kuusanjàa mouse souris
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kʷɨtɨr ʸ n. tail queue (11 groups, 26 languages) B
This root is well attested across the Central Chadic languages. The initial *kʷ has a wider range of reflexes than with other roots. These reflexes include *hʷ, *w, *gʷ, *g and *f, and are all unestablished. In Gidar the labialisation component has been reanalysed as the labialisation prosody, which is a common sporadic process. The *t has the unestablished reflexes /d/ and /ⁿd/ in some languages. In Glavda, *t is palatalised by the palatalisation prosody, and *tʲ→kʲ due to the regular process of velarisation of palatalised alveolars. *r has the regular reflex *l in the North sub-branch and in Proto-Daba, with a few irregular exceptions.
1Proto-Bata *hʷɨtɨrɨ tail queue 1.1) Sharwa (Gravina) hutɨrə queue
2Proto-Daba *kʷɨtɨl ʸ tail queue 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) kutel tail queue 2.2) MazagwayHidi (Noussi) kʷetir queue
3Proto-Mafa *hʷɨtar tail queue 3.1) Mafa (Barreteau) fútór queue 3.2) Cuvok (Gravina) hʷadar tail queue
4Proto-Sukur *tur tail queue 4.1) Sukur (David) tur tail 4.2) Sukur (Thomas) tur tail:- a long thin park at the back of animals normally they used it to protect them from fly.
5Proto-Hurza *kʷɨtar ʸ tail queue 5.1) Mbuko (Gravina) guter tail queue 5.2) Vame (Kinnaird) kuter tail queue 5.2.1) Vame (Kinnaird) kʷītér tail queue
6Proto-Mandara *kʷɨtɨlɨ ʸ tail queue 6.1) Podoko (Swackhammer) fətəla,-ə queue 6.2) Mandara (Fluckiger) uktere la queue (f) 6.2.1) Mandara (Fluckiger) ugdere queue (f) 6.2.2) Mandara (Fluckiger) katalíá queue (f) 6.3) Malgwa (Löhr) gatalija tail 6.4) Glavda (Nghagyiva) xùkʲla tail 6.4.1) Glavda (Owens) xʷçə tail 6.5) Dghwede (Frick) xʷtəle tail
7Proto-Mofu *hʷɨtɨl ʸ tail queue 7.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) àftə̀l tail queue 7.2) Muyang (Smith) hutul tail queue 7.3) Moloko (Friesen) hʷəter tail queue 7.4) Gemzek (Sabatai) gutel tail queue 7.5) Merey (Gravina) hutel tail queue 7.6) Dugwor (Jubumna) mətel tail queue 7.7) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) deŋgʷél queue (Mokong) 7.7.1) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) gʷeⁿdél queue (Gudur)
8Proto-Lamang *hʷɨtir tail queue 8.1) Lamang (Wolff) hʷtir tail 8.2) Hdi (Bramlett) hutur tail la queue
9Proto-Higi *twɨlɨ tail queue 9.1) Kirya (Blench) twə́lə́ tail
10Proto-Gidar *kɨtɨrɨ ʷ tail queue 10.1) Gidar (Schuh) kutəro/0 queue 10.2) Gidar (Hungerford) kutur, kuturo queue
11Proto-Musgum *gɨɗar ʸ, hɨntɨl ʷ tail queue 11.1) Vulum (Tourneux) giɗer queue 11.1.1) Mbara (Tourneux) huntul tail queue
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lɨvari n. lion lion (8 groups, 14 languages) D syn: mabor, zɨjɨl.
There are a variety of apparently cognate forms collected here. The root is unlikely to have existed in Proto-Central Chadic, but was a later innovation or borrowing. The initial consonant was probably *l, which is not a native Central Chadic phoneme. In languages of the South sub-branch, where *l had not yet developed, the reflex was *ɮ. In other languages it had the reflex *r. The Mbara form is possibly cognate, though the balance of likelihood is that it is not.
1Proto-Bata *ɮavarɨ ʸ lion lion 1.1) Gude (Hoskinson) lìvjàrá -ə lion 1.2) Tsuvan (Johnston) ɮjaɮjaware le lion
2Proto-Daba *ɮɨvari lion lion 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) levere lion lion 2.2) Daba (Lienhard) ɮə̀vàrì le lion
3Proto-Sukur *rivari lion lion 3.1) Sukur (Thomas) livari lion:- is a kind of very strong animals living in the bush with big eye. which seem to be the king of the whole animals. 3.2) Sukur (Thomas) rivari lion
4Proto-Hurza *alvare lion lion 4.1) Vame (Kinnaird) álvàrè lion lion
5Proto-Margi *lɨvari lion lion 5.1) Margi South (Harley) ləvari lion
6Proto-Mandara *rɨvarɨ lion lion 6.1) Podoko (Swackhammer) rəvára,-ə lion 6.2) Mandara (Fluckiger) évare lion 6.3) Malgwa (Löhr) ərvare lion 6.4) Glavda (Nghagyiva) árvàɾa lion 6.4.1) Glavda (Owens) árvá lion
7Proto-Higi *lɨvari lion lion 7.1) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) ləvari lion 7.2) Kirya (Blench) wùrávànə̀ lion
8Proto-Musgum *divaŋ lion lion 8.1) Mbara (Tourneux) divaŋ lion
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ɬa₁ nf. cow bœuf (18 groups, 54 languages)
This is the best attested root in Central Chadic, occuring in all eighteen groups. *ɬ has the regular reflex *ɮ in the South sub-branch, with the further regular reflex *l within part of the Bata group. *ɬ also has the regular reflexes *h in Buduma, *s in Proto-Kotoko South and some of the other Kotoko languages, and *ʃ in Mpade.
1Proto-Bata *ɮa cow vache 1.1) Gude (Hoskinson) là cow 1.2) Jimi (Djibi) lan 2 - Bœuf 1.3) Sharwa (Gravina) la Bœuf ,bœufs 1.3.1) Sharwa (Gravina) la vache 1.4) Tsuvan (Johnston) ɮa le bœuf 1.4.1) Tsuvan (Johnston) ɮakən la vache
2Proto-Daba *ɮa cow vache 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) ɮɑ ox (general term), bovine bœuf 2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) ɮɑ ox (general term), bovine bœuf 2.3) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) ɮa ox bœuf 2.4) MazagwayHidi (Noussi) ɮa boeuf 2.5) Daba (Lienhard) ɮà la vache, le bétail
3Proto-Mafa *ɮa cow vache 3.1) Mafa (Ndokobai) ɮe cow boeuf 3.2) Cuvok (Gravina) ɮa ox bœuf
4Proto-Tera *ɮa cow vache 4.1) Tera (Newman) ɮa cow 4.2) Nyimatli (Harley) ɮe cow 4.2.1) Nyimatli (Harley) ɮa cow (female)
5Proto-Sukur *ɮɨ cow vache 5.1) Sukur (David) ɮə cow, general term for cattle 5.2) Sukur (Thomas) ɮəŋa my cow; not belong to some one
6Proto-Hurza *ɬa cow vache 6.1) Mbuko (Gravina) ɬa cow boeuf, vache 6.2) Vame (Kinnaird) āɬā ox boeuf
7Proto-Margi *ɬa cow vache 7.1) Margi (Hoffman) ɬa cow 7.2) Margi South (Harley) thla cow 7.3) Kilba (Schuh) ɬa cow 7.4) Bura (Blench) ɬa, ɬi Cow
8Proto-Mandara *ɨɬa cow vache 8.1) Matal (Branger) ɬa cow boeuf 8.2) Podoko (Swackhammer) ɬa,-a vache, boeuf 8.3) Mandara (Fluckiger) éɬá boeuf (m) 8.4) Malgwa (Löhr) əthla cattle, cow 8.5) Glavda (Nghagyiva) ɬa cow (female)
9Proto-Mofu *ɬa cow vache 9.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) ɬà ox boeuf 9.2) Moloko (Friesen) ɬa cow vache; boeuf 9.3) Zulgo (Haller) ɬa vache f. 9.4) Gemzek (Sabatai) ɬa ox bœuf 9.5) Merey (Gravina) ɬa ox bœuf 9.6) Dugwor (Jubumna) mamij ɬa cow vache 9.7) Mofu North (Barreteau) ɬā bovin, vache, boeuf. 9.8) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) ɬa cow bovin, vache
10Proto-Maroua *ɬa cow vache 10.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) ɬa vache 10.2) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) ɬa ox bœuf 10.2.1) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) ɬa cow vache 10.3) Mbazla (Tourneux) ɬa vache
11Proto-Lamang *ɬa cow vache 11.1) Lamang (Wolff) ɬá cow 11.2) Hdi (Bramlett) ɬa cow la vache varieté zébu
12Proto-Higi *ɬa cow vache 12.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) ɬá cow 12.1.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) thla cow 12.2) Kirya (Blench) ɬá cow 12.3) Psikye (Angelo) ɬa cow 12.4) Bana (Lienhard) ɬá vache
13Proto-Kotoko Island *ha cow vache 13.1) Buduma (McKone) ha cow vache
14Proto-Kotoko North *ɬa cow vache 14.1) Afade (Allison) ɬa; ɬa l gɨrɨm cow vache 14.2) Mpade (Allison) ʃá cow vache 14.3) Malgbe (Allison) ɬa cow vache
15Proto-Kotoko Centre *ɬa cow vache 15.1) Lagwan (Allison) nɬa cow vache 15.2) Mser (Allison) sa ox bœuf
16Proto-Kotoko South *sa cow vache 16.1) Zina (Odden) àsà cow vache 16.2) Mazera (Allison) kɨsa cow vache
17Proto-Musgum *ɬaj cow vache 17.1) Vulum (Tourneux) ɬaj vache 17.2) Mulwi (Tourneux) ɬe boeuf 17.3) Mbara (Tourneux) wurɮaj cow
18Proto-Gidar *waɬɨja cow vache 18.1) Gidar (Hungerford) waɬija vache, boeuf 18.2) Gidar (Schuh) waɬija/0 vache
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ɬa₂ v. cut couper (13 groups, 34 languages) A
This is a very well attested Central Chadic root. The *ɬ has the regular reflex *ɮ in the South sub-branch. Within the Bata group, there has been a subsequent regular change *ɮ→l in most languages. *ɬ also has the regular reflex *s in several Kotoko languages. The ejective that is present in Proto-Kotoko North and Proto-Kotoko Centre may indicate that the root originally contained a glottal consonant such as *ɗ, which fused with the reflex of *ɬ, but without any supporting evidence this cannot be included in the reconstruction.
1Proto-Bata *ɮa cut couper 1.1) Gude (Hoskinson) la cut 1.2) Jimi (Djibi) lan 1 - Trouver, couper avec un couteau ou une hache ; 1.3) Sharwa (Gravina) la (se) couper 1.4) Tsuvan (Johnston) a ɮakən couper en morceau?
2Proto-Daba *ɮa cut couper 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) ɮɑ cut couper 2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) ɮɑ cut with a blade (tr) couper avec une lame 2.2.1) Gavar (Viljoen) ɮɑ saw (wood) scier 2.3) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) ɮu cut (tr) couper 2.3.1) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) kəɮa butcher, cut up (meat) (v) abattre, découper (viande) 2.4) Daba (Lienhard) ɮà couper
3Proto-Tera *ɮa cut couper 3.1) Tera (Newman) ɮa cut (e.g. w/ knife)
4Proto-Sukur *ɮɨ cut couper 4.1) Sukur (David) ɮə cut, to
5Proto-Hurza *ɬa cut couper 5.1) Mbuko (Gravina) ɬa to cut (eg grass) couper (eg herbe) 5.2) Vame (Kinnaird) ɬáwā cut couper
6Proto-Margi *ɬa cut couper 6.1) Bura (Blench) ɬa To cut up in pieces 6.2) Margi (Hoffman) ɬə to cut (with axe) 6.3) Kilba (Schuh) ɬa/a cut 6.3.1) Kilba (Schuh) ɬa/a slaughter 6.3.2) Kilba (Schuh) ɬau cut
7Proto-Mandara *ɬa cut couper 7.1) Podoko (Swackhammer) ɬa couper
8Proto-Mofu *ɬ cut couper 8.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) ɬì cut couper 8.2) Muyang (Smith) ɬɑj cut with a sickle couper (avec la faucille), couper en enlevant, couper l’obscurité 8.3) Zulgo (Haller) ɮe couper, faire une incision 8.4) Dugwor (Jubumna) maɬaj cut (tr) couper 8.5) Mofu North (Barreteau) méɬēj couper, circoncire 8.5.1) Mofu North (Barreteau) méɬēj appara"itre pour la lune, commencer (mois) 8.5.2) Mofu North (Barreteau) méɬēj ravir, épouser (femme) 8.6) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) ɬ ́ couper; circoncire 8.6.1) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) ɬ ́ apparaître (la lune), commencer (le mois)
9Proto-Maroua *ɬi cut couper 9.1) Mbazla (Tourneux) ɬi couper
10Proto-Higi *ɬa cut couper 10.1) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) ɬa cut open (papaya) 10.2) Kirya (Blench) ɬá cut, trim, sneeze, smell 10.3) Psikye (Angelo) ɬá cut 10.4) Bana (Lienhard) ɬá couper, tailler, trancher
11Proto-Kotoko North *ɬʼa cut couper 11.1) Afade (Allison) sʼa; sʼel chop into pieces fendre, couper en morceaux 11.2) Mpade (Allison) sʼà hò cut open fendre, ouvrir avec un couteau 11.2.1) Mpade (Allison) nsʼá chop into pieces fendre, couper en morceaux 11.3) Malgbe (Allison) ɬawun cut open fendre, ouvrir avec un couteau 11.3.1) Malgbe (Allison) sʼɨnjawun chop into pieces fendre, couper en morceaux
12Proto-Kotoko Centre *sʼa cut couper 12.1) Lagwan (Allison) sʼawun chop into pieces fendre, couper en morceaux 12.2) Mser (Allison) sʼia cut open fendre, ouvrir avec un couteau 12.2.1) Mser (Allison) sʼia has has chop into pieces fendre, couper en morceaux
13Proto-Musgum *ɬi cut couper 13.1) Mulwi (Tourneux) ɬi couper 13.2) Mbara (Tourneux) ɬii cut couper
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ɬɨɗɨn ʸ nf. tooth dent (18 groups, 53 languages) B
This root is found in all groups, and can be reconstructed for Proto-Chadic and in other branches of Afroasiatic. *ɬ behaves as expected, having the regular reflex *ɮ in the South sub-branch and other regular reflexes such as /l/, /s/ and /h/ in individual languages or group proto-languages. The final *n has the regular reflex *r in the Margi-Mandara-Mofu major group. *ɗ is reconstructed based on data from the Daba and Lamang groups. In the Daba group, the reflex /ɗ/ is found. In the Lamang group the Lamang language has /d/ and Hdi has /ʔ/, giving good grounds for reconstructing *ɗ. In the Hurza group, the Vame word gives support for a middle consonant in the root, but does not provide support for *ɗ itself. Under palatalisation, *ɗ regularly becomes /j/ in most languages, which accounts for its absence in some cases. There is evidence for the palatalisation prosody from almost all groups where it is a productive feature.
1Proto-Bata *ɮinɨ ʸ tooth dent 1.1) Bata (Boyd) linto tooth 1.2) Gude (Hoskinson) lìnjínə (inher. poss., body part) tooth, teeth 1.3) Jimi (Djibi) linjən Dent 1.4) Sharwa (Gravina) linjə Dent 1.5) Tsuvan (Johnston) ɮine la dent
2Proto-Daba *ɮɨɗaŋ ʸ tooth dent 2.1) Buwal (Viljoen) ɮəɗeŋ tooth dent 2.2) Gavar (Viljoen) ɮiɗeŋ tooth dent
3Proto-Mafa *ɮan ʸ tooth dent 3.1) Mafa (Barreteau) ɮene dent 3.2) Cuvok (Gravina) ɮeŋ tooth dent
4Proto-Tera *ɮin tooth dent 4.1) Tera (Newman) ɮin tooth (general term and incisor) 4.2) Nyimatli (Harley) ɮin tooth
5Proto-Sukur *ɮɨn ʸ tooth dent 5.1) Sukur (David) ɮjin tooth 5.2) Sukur (Thomas) ɮin teeth:- is something in the mouth for both human and animal usually for eating and bitting.
6Proto-Hurza *ɬahan tooth dent 6.1) Mbuko (Gravina) ɬan tooth dent 6.2) Vame (Kinnaird) ɬāhán tooth dent
7Proto-Margi *ɬɨr ʸ tooth dent 7.1) Margi (Hoffman) hjir tooth 7.2) Margi South (Harley) hjir tooth 7.2.1) Margi South (Hoffman) hjir tooth 7.3) Kilba (Hoffman) hjir tooth 7.3.1) Kilba (Schuh) hjir tooth 7.4) Bura (Blench) ɬir Tooth (Preferably 'hlir') (BR) 7.4.1) Bura (Blench) hir Tooth 7.4.2) Bura (Blench) hjir, hir Tooth, teeth
8Proto-Mandara *ɬɨrɨ ʸ tooth dent 8.1) Matal (Branger) ɬɪ᷆ɗ tooth dent 8.2) Podoko (Swackhammer) ɬira,-ə dent 8.3) Mandara (Fluckiger) ɬáré dent (f), défense d'éléphant, tranchant de la lame d'un instrument, croc d'un animal 8.4) Malgwa (Löhr) thlaare tooth 8.5) Glavda (Nghagyiva) ɬr̀ɗa tooth 8.6) Dghwede (Frick) ɬire tooth
9Proto-Mofu *ɬɨr ʸ tooth dent 9.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) āɬár tooth dent 9.2) Muyang (Smith) aɬər tooth dent 9.3) Mada (Nkoumou) aɬár dent 9.4) Moloko (Friesen) aɬar tooth dent 9.5) Zulgo (Haller) ɮír dent f. 9.6) Gemzek (Sabatai) ɮer tooth dent 9.7) Merey (Gravina) ɮer tooth dent 9.8) Dugwor (Jubumna) ɮer tooth dent 9.9) Mofu North (Barreteau) ɬér dent 9.10) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) ɬer dent ; croc, défense (d'éléphant)
10Proto-Maroua *ɬɨn ʸ tooth dent 10.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) ɬiŋ dent 10.2) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) ɬin tooth dent 10.3) Mbazla (Tourneux) ɬiŋ dent 10.3.1) Mbazla (SILSurvey) híŋ tooth dent
11Proto-Lamang *ɬiɗiŋ tooth dent 11.1) Lamang (Wolff) ɬidiŋ teeth 11.2) Hdi (Bramlett) ɬiʼiŋ tooth la dent
12Proto-Higi *ɬinɨ tooth dent 12.1) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) ɬino tooth 12.2) Kirya (Blench) ɬàj tooth 12.3) Psikye (Angelo) ɬənə́ tooth 12.4) Bana (Lienhard) ɬìnì dent
13Proto-Kotoko Island *hɨnaj tooth dent 13.1) Buduma (McKone) hənaj dent.
14Proto-Kotoko North *ɬɨr tooth dent 14.1) Afade (Allison) ɬɨr tooth dent 14.2) Mpade (Allison) ʃán tooth dent 14.3) Malgbe (Allison) ɬɨr tooth dent
15Proto-Kotoko Centre *ɬɨni tooth dent 15.1) Lagwan (Allison) ɬɨni tooth dent 15.2) Mser (Allison) sɨr tooth dent
16Proto-Kotoko South *sin tooth dent 16.1) Zina (Odden) sìn tooth dent 16.2) Mazera (Allison) sine tooth dent
17Proto-Musgum *ɬɨŋ tooth dent 17.1) Vulum (Tourneux) ɬɨŋɬɨŋ dent
18Proto-Gidar *ɬaja tooth dent 18.1) Gidar (Schuh) ɬaja, dent 18.2) Gidar (Hungerford) ɬaja dent
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ɬɨmɨɗ ʸ₂ n. ear oreille (18 groups, 53 languages) A cf: ɬɨmɨɗ ʸ₁.
This root is attested in all Central Chadic groups. The initial *ɬ has the regular reflex *ɮ in the South sub-branch and has regular reflexes in all alnguages. The *m is stable, except for the sporadic change to /ᵐb/ in Mafa. The final *ɗ is retained in Mafa and the Giziga languages, and there is the reflex /ʔ/ in Daba and Mbazla. Elsewhere the *ɗ has either been lost completely, or has been palatalised, with *ɗʲ→j. As a result of this, the palatalisation prosody is only apparent in four groups.
1Proto-Bata *ɮɨmi ʸ ear oreille 1.1) Gude (Hoskinson) lə̀má -ə (inher. poss.) name 1.2) Jimi (Djibi) limən 1 - Oreille; 2 - Nom 1.3) Sharwa (Gravina) limi oreille 1.3.1) Sharwa (Gravina) limi nom 1.4) Tsuvan (Johnston) ɮəme l'oreille
2Proto-Daba *ɮɨmɨʔ ʸ ear oreille 2.1) Gavar (Viljoen) ɮəm ear oreille 2.2) Buwal (Viljoen) ɮɑm ear oreille 2.3) MazagwayHidi (Noussi) ɮimi oreille 2.4) Daba (Lienhard) ɮìmī ʼ l'oreille ; écouter, entendre, obéir 2.5) Mbudum (Ndokobaï) ɮəm ear oreille
3Proto-Mafa *ɮɨmaɗ ear oreille 3.1) Mafa (Barreteau) ɮəᵐbaɗ oreille 3.2) Cuvok (Gravina) ɮəmaj ear oreille
4Proto-Tera *ɮim ear oreille 4.1) Tera (Newman) ɮim ear 4.1.1) Tera (Newman) ɮim name 4.2) Nyimatli (Harley) ɮu̱m ear 4.2.1) Nyimatli (Harley) ɮu̱m name
5Proto-Sukur *ɮɨmaj ear oreille 5.1) Sukur (David) ɮəmaj ear 5.2) Sukur (Thomas) ɮəmai ear; is the general term for ear.
6Proto-Hurza *ɬɨmaj ear oreille 6.1) Mbuko (Gravina) ɬəmaj ear oreille 6.2) Vame (Kinnaird) ɬəmaj ear oreille
7Proto-Margi *ɬɨmi ʸ ear oreille 7.1) Margi (Hoffman) ɬimi ear 7.2) Margi South (Harley) himi ear 7.3) Kilba (Schuh) hjimi ear 7.4) Bura (Blench) ɬim Ear
8Proto-Mandara *ɬɨmɨ ʸ ear oreille 8.1) Matal (Branger) ɬəm ear oreille 8.2) Podoko (Swackhammer) ɬəma,-ə 1 oreille 8.2.1) Podoko (Swackhammer) ɬəma,-ə 2 barbillon d'une flèche 8.3) Mandara (Fluckiger) hjama oreille (f) 8.4) Malgwa (Löhr) hjima ear 8.5) Glavda (Nghagyiva) çɨ̀mja ear 8.5.1) Glavda (Owens) çími leaf, ear 8.6) Dghwede (Frick) ɬəme ear
9Proto-Mofu *ɬɨmaj ear oreille 9.1) Ouldeme (Kinnaird) ɬə̄māj ear oreille 9.2) Muyang (Smith) ɬimi ear ; name oreille; nom 9.3) Mada (Nkoumou) ɬme oreille 9.4) Zulgo (Haller) ɮə́m oreille f. 9.5) Gemzek (Sabatai) ɮam ear oreille 9.6) Merey (Gravina) ɮəm ear oreille 9.7) Dugwor (Jubumna) ɮam ear oreille 9.8) Mofu North (Barreteau) ɬə́máj oreille 9.9) Mofu-Gudur (Hollingsworth) ɬəmaj ear oreille
10Proto-Maroua *ɬɨmɨɗ ʸ ear oreile 10.1) Giziga Moutourwa (Michielan) ɬimiɗ(i) oreille, nom, prénom 10.2) Giziga Marva (Hamidou) ɬimeɗ ear oreille 10.3) Mbazla (Tourneux) ɬəmaj oreille 10.3.1) Mbazla (SILSurvey) ʃímɛ̄ʼ ear oreille
11Proto-Lamang *ɬɨmɨŋ ear oreille 11.1) Hdi (Bramlett) ɬəməŋ ear l'oreille
12Proto-Higi *ɬɨmɨ ear oreille 12.1) Kamwe-Nkafa (Harley) ɬəmə ear 12.2) Kamwe-Futu (Harley) ɬimoᵑg ear 12.3) Kirya (Blench) ɬə́m ear, name 12.4) Bana (Lienhard) ɬə́mə́ oreille
13Proto-Kotoko Island *hɨmu ear oreille 13.1) Buduma (McKone) həmuə ear oreille 13.2) Buduma (McKone) həmu oreille, nom, anse.
14Proto-Kotoko North *ɬɨm ear oreille 14.1) Afade (Allison) ɬɨm ear oreille 14.2) Mpade (Allison) ʃimu ear oreille 14.3) Malgbe (Allison) ɬɨm ear oreille
15Proto-Kotoko Centre *ɬɨmi ear oreille 15.1) Lagwan (Allison) ɬɨmi ear oreille 15.2) Mser (Allison) sɨm; tobo ear oreille
16Proto-Kotoko South *sime ear oreille 16.1) Mazera (Allison) sime ear oreille
17Proto-Musgum *ɬɨma ʷ ear oreille 17.1) Mbara (Tourneux) ɬumo ear
18Proto-Gidar *ɬɨma ear oreille 18.1) Gidar (Hungerford) ɬəma oreille 18.1.1) Gidar (Schuh) ɬəma/a oreille
19Kanuri sə́mo ear oreille
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