Grammar

Grammar for the Dictionary User

A short introduction to the main features of the grammar is provided here to enable the reader to understand something of how the words fit together.

Parts of Speech

These are categories such as noun, adjective, verb, pronoun and so on, which indicate what kind of word we are dealing with and how it functions in the grammar of the language. Languages often vary greatly in the kinds of parts of speech they use. However most Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra parts of speech are very similar to those of English. Nonetheless, there are a few important differences.

Firstly, in Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra there are two types of verbs which are called ‘transitive’ and ‘intransitive’. Transitive verbs are those which involve two participants, a ‘do-er’ and a ‘do-ee’, so to speak: e.g. hit, see and make. The action is transferred from the ‘do-er’ to the ‘do-ee’, which is why they are called transitive verbs. Intransitive verbs are those with only one participant, the ‘do-er’: e.g. come, sleep and cry. In the definitions for transitive verbs, the ‘do-ee’ is expressed by ‘someone’ and/or ‘something’, so that the language learner will know that it is a transitive verb.

Secondly, there are four types of adverbs (words that tell when, where, or how an action is done): time adverbs, spatial adverbs, adverbs 1 and adverbs 2. The first three types do not usually have any endings. However, in a transitive sentence an adverb 2 has endings similar to those on the subject; e.g. Wati ngaalunku kurri mirrparntu pungkulanytja..(man this-his wife angrily was hitting), ‘This man was angrily hitting his wife.’

Verbs

Verbs in Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra all have endings. These indicate the time (present, past or future) when the action took place, and other things about the action. The verbs in Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra belong to four families (or classes). Verbs of the same family have the same endings. In the dictionary verbs are shown in the future tense (which is also used for customary actions). The future tense differs for each of the four families, so one can easily see which family a verb belongs to. The table below shows the endings for different tenses and moods for each of the four families. (Linguists sometimes call these families the l, zero, n and ng conjugations.)

The verbs ngalku, ‘eat’, ngaraku, ‘stand’, nyaku, ‘see’, and pitjaku, ‘come’, are slightly irregular. The variations are shown under each dictionary entry.

BASIC VERB ENDINGS

	l	zero	n	ng
Future	nintilku ‘will give it’	wantiku ‘will leave it’	tjunku ‘will put it’	pungku ‘will hit it’
Command	nintila ‘give it’	wanti ‘leave it’	tjurra ‘put it’	puwa ‘hit it’
Continuous Command, Continuous Future	nintinma ‘keep giving it’, will keep giving it’	wantima ‘keep leaving it’, will keep leaving it’	tjunama / tjunkuma ‘keep putting it’, ‘will keep putting it’	pungama / pungkuma ‘keep hitting it’, ‘will keep hitting it’
Present	nintira ‘giving it’     nintirni1 nintiranyini2	wantirra ‘leaving it’     wantinyi1 wantirranyini2	tjunkula ‘putting it’ yangatjura ‘blocking it’   tjunanyi1 tjunkulanyini2	pungkula ‘hitting it’     punganyi1 pungkulanyini2
Past	nintirnu ‘gave it’	wantingu ‘left it’	tjunu ‘put it’	pungu ‘hit it’
Participle	nintira ‘having given it’	wantirra ‘having left it’	tjunkula ‘having put it’ yangatjura ‘having blocked it’	pungkula ‘having hit it’
Past Continuous	nintiranytja ‘was giving it’ nintiningi3	wantirranytja ‘was leaving it’ wantingi3	tjunkulanytja ‘was putting it’ tjunangi3	pungkulanytja ‘was hitting it’ pungangi3
Habitual	nintilpayi ‘always gave it’	wantipayi ‘always left it’	tjunkupayi ‘always put it’	pungkupayi ‘always hit it’
Nominal form	nintintja(nya) ‘the thing given’	wantinytja(nya) ‘the thing left’	tjunkutja(nya) tjunkunytja(nya)1 ‘the thing put’	pungkutja(nya) pungkunytja(nya)1 ‘the thing hit’
Cessative	kantultjarra ‘stop treading on it’	yulatjarra ‘stop crying’	yangatjunkutjarra ‘stop blocking it’	pungkutjarra ‘stop hitting it’
Regressive		katinytja ‘brought it back’ katingi3

1 marks forms occurring in Blackstone Ngaatjatjarra; 2 marks forms occurring in Tjukurla Ngaatjatjarra; 3 marks forms in Blackstone and Rawlinson Ngaatjatjarra

More complex verb forms

When verbs occur in subordinate or dependent clauses they have more complex forms as shown in the following table.

MORE COMPLEX VERB ENDINGS

Circumstantial	nintinnyangka ‘when he gave it’	wantinyangka ‘when he left it’	tjunkunyangka ‘when he put it’	pungkunyangka ‘when he hit it’
Purpose (same subject)	nintilkitja ‘(went) to give it’	wantikitja ‘(went) to leave it’	tjunkukitja ‘(went) to put it’	pungkukitja ‘(went) to hit it’
Purpose (different subject)	nintiltjaku ‘(said) to give it’	wantitjaku ‘(said) to leave it’	tjunkutjaku ‘(said) to put it’   tjunkunytjaku1	pungkutjaku ‘(said) to hit it’ 1 pungkunytjaku

1 marks forms occurring in Blackstone Ngaatjatjarra

Another common verb form is known as the extensive aspect. It is usually followed by another verb. The extensive aspect indicates an action which occurs over an extended period of time, until the action conveyed by the following verb occurs. A verb in any tense can be extended in this way: e.g. Tjiinya-latju ngurrirayilku marlu tjutupungku. (you see-we search for some time kangaroo shoot), ‘We search around for a kangaroo and shoot it.’

The following table shows three ways of forming the extensive future of verbs taken from the four families.

EXTENSIVE FUTURE ENDINGS

l	zero	n	ng
nintirayilku ‘will keep on giving it’	yularrayilku ‘will keep on crying’	tjunkulayilku ‘will keep on putting it’	pungkulayilku ‘will keep on hitting it’
nintiraanku	yularraanku	tjunkulaanku	pungkulaanku
nintirayinku	yularrayinku	tjunkulayinku	pungkulayinku

The first row of the table shows the most common forms. But some speakers use the forms shown in either row two or row three. Shortened forms sometimes occur with verbs that have a main part ending in a, such as: wanalku, '‘follow', nyinaku, ‘sit’, pitjaku,‘come’, or wirrtjalku, ‘come quickly’: e.g. wanayilku, nyinayilku, pitjayilku.

Case endings

Nouns often have endings (called case endings) added to them to show the role that the person, place or thing has in the sentence. For instance, in the sentence: Watilu marlu tjutupungu., ‘The man shot the kangaroo.’, the ending -lu is attached to the word wati, ‘man’, to show that he was the one that did the shooting, or, as we said earlier, wati is the subject of a transitive sentence. There are other endings whose meanings are more tangible and are somewhat like prepositions in English. For example, watiku means ‘the man’s’ or ‘for the man’. The word kapi, ‘water’ can occur as kapingka, ‘at/in the water’, kapikutu, ‘to the water’, or kapinguru, ‘from the water’.

Most case endings have two variants depending on whether the noun is a ‘common noun’ like ‘man’ or ‘water’ or the name of a person or a place, a ‘proper noun’. Case endings also have different forms if the final sound of the basic form of the word is a consonant rather than a vowel, as shown in the table below.

NOMINAL CASE ENDINGS

subject of a transitive verb	watilu ‘the man did it’	Pirnkulu ‘Pirnku did it’	yurntaltu ‘daughter did it’	Wamintu ‘Wamin did it’
for, of, belonging to	watiku ‘for the man’	Pirnkuku ‘for Pirnku’	yurntalku ‘for daughter’	Waminku ‘for Wamin’
at, in, by	kapingka ‘in the water’	Tjukurlala ‘at Tjukurla’	yurntalta ‘with daughter’	Wanarnta ‘at Wanarn’
to	kapikutu ‘to the water’	Tjukurlalakutu ‘to Tjukurla’	yurntalkutu ‘to daughter’	Wanarntakutu ‘to Wanarn’
from	kapinguru ‘from the water’	Tjukurlalanguru ‘from Tjukurla’	yurntalnguru ‘from daughter’	Wanarntanguru ‘from Wanarn’

The case endings are not always attached to nouns: they are attached to the final word of a noun phrase. In Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra the noun phrase ‘a short man’ is wati murtu-murtu. So, ‘for the short man’ is wati murtu-murtuku. (man short-for)

PRONOUNS

These are words like ‘I’, ‘you’, ‘me’, ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘him’ and ‘her’. In Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra these pronouns are usually endings that can be attached to any type of word. (They are known as enclitics). They are normally attached to the first word in a sentence: e.g. Tjinguru-ya puu wakanma. Ka-latju nyinama. ‘They should have sunk a bore. Then we could have stayed there.’

Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra pronouns make two distinctions that are not made in English. Firstly, instead of just having singular and plural, as in English, there is a set of pronouns used when talking about two people (known as dual pronouns). Secondly, there is a distinction made when saying ‘we’, ‘us’ and ‘our’ as to whether the person being spoken to is included or not included. The forms of the pronoun endings are shown in the table opposite.

PRONOUN ENDINGS

Subject	Object	Possessive
-rna I	-rni me	-tju my
-n you	-nta you	-nku your
zero he, she, it	-lu him, her, it	-ra / -nku his, hers, its for him, for her,  for it
-li/-lin we two (I and you)	-linya us two (me and you)	-limpa our two (my and yours)
-litju we two (not you)	-linyatju us two (not you)	-limpatju our two (not yours)
-pula/-pulan you two	-pulanyanta you two	-pulampanku your two
-pula they two	-pulanya them two	-pulampa/-pulanku their two
-la/-lan we and you	-lanya us and you	-lampa our and yours
-latju we all (not you)	-lanyatju us all (not you)	-lampatju our all (not yours)
-ya/-yan you all	-tjananyanta you all	-tjanampanku your all
-ya they all	-tjananya them all	-tjanampa/-yanku their all

You will notice that there is no pronoun ending for ‘he’, ‘she’ or ‘it’. If a sentence has no other noun or pronoun subject, you can usually assume that the subject is ‘he’, ‘she’ or ‘it’.

As well as the pronoun endings, there are longer forms for ‘I’ and ‘you’. However, these do not usually occur without the pronoun endings as well. These longer forms are mainly used for emphasis.

LONG PRONOUNS

Subject	Object	Possessive
ngayulu-rna I	ngayunya-rni me	ngayuku-tju my, mine
nyuntulun you	nyuntunyanta you	nyuntukunku your, yours

Other endings (enclitics):

There are also other endings, which can be attached to any type of word,  and are normally attached to the first word in a sentence because they affect the meaning of the whole sentence. Some of these endings (like -munta) are written with a hyphen. One of these is –munta, which indicates a yes/no question: Wangara-munta-rnanku kaalypirrilku? (Tea-query-I for you cool) ‘Shall I cool your tea for you?’ Others are not written with a hyphen, like –palka, which indicates a wish: Kapipalkan kutipitja marnmala. (water-wish-you go scoop out), ‘I wish you'd go and get some water (for us).’

Word-building:

In Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra there are regular ways in which words (such as nouns and adjectives) can be made into other words, particularly verbs. For example, the word katu, ‘up’ or ‘above’ is also a base for the words katurringku ,‘get up’, and katulku, ‘lift something up’. There are a number of regular processes for making words out of other words and, in particular, for making verbs from nouns. These processes also take into account the number of syllables in the main part of the word. We will describe two of the most common ways of doing this.

DERIVED VERB FORMATION

	l	zero	n	ng
	-lku	-ku	-nku	-ngku
katu two syllables ‘up’	katulku ‘lift it up’			katurringku ‘get up’
purlka(nya) two syllables ‘big’	purlkalku ‘make it bigger’			purlkarringku ‘get bigger’
yirrala three syllables ‘pool’		yirralarriku ‘become a pool’	yirralanku ‘make it liquid’

As shown above, the main part of the word purlkanya, ‘big’, is purlk,a which has two syllables. The verb purlkarringku means ‘become bigger’ or ‘grow’ and is a verb of the -ngku family. The word yirrala,  ‘a pool of water’, has three syllables. Therefore, yirralarriku means ‘become a pool of water’ and is a verb of the -ku family. However ,there is a lot of variation between speakers regarding verbs formed by adding -rri to a noun or adjective, and you may hear people using the verb endings from either the -ku or the -ngku family.

Similarly, the word purlkalku, ‘make something bigger’, has been formed from the word purlka(nya), ‘big’, and belongs to the -lku family. The word yirralanku, ‘make something into a pool’ or ‘make something liquid’, has been formed from yirrala, ‘pool of water’, and belongs to the -nku family. Usually, when a word of three syllables becomes a ‘make something ---’ verb, it belongs to the -nku family. However, some speakers treat these words as belonging to the -lku family.

Another way of forming new words is by doubling (reduplication). This is a fascinating process and several types of meaning are conveyed by it.

• Indicates something less:. e.g. purlkanya, ‘big’, purlka-purlka, ‘middle-sized’; tiwa, ‘a long way’, tiwa-tiwa ,‘a medium distance’; kurranyu, ‘ahead’, kurranyu-kurranyu, ‘somewhat ahead’.
• Indicates something more than something: e.g. purinypa, ‘slowly’, puriny-purinypa, ‘more slowly’; tjukumunu, ‘big’, tjuku-tjukumunu, ‘huge’.
• Indicates something like something else: e.g. mangur,i ‘carrying ring’, manguri-manguri, ‘circle’.
• Indicates a game of pretending to be something: e.g. wati, ‘man’, wati-wati, ‘boys’ game of pretending to be men and spearing each other’; wiltja, ‘shelter’, wiltja-wiltja, ‘game of cubbyhouses’.
• When the first part of verb is doubled up, it intensifies the verb in various ways:

1. It may indicate that a lot of people did that thing: e.g. pakarnu, ‘got up’, paka-pakarnu, ‘a lot of people or animals got up’.
2. It may indicate that it was done to a lot of things: e.g. walatjunu, ‘put down roots’, wala-walatjunu, ‘put down a lot of roots’.
3. It may indicate that the action was done rapidly or in quick succession: e.g. wakarnu, ‘speared or jabbed’, waka-wakarnu, ‘speared/jabbed in quick succession’.
4. It may intensify the action: e.g. tjuni kampaku, ‘be angry’, tjuni kampa-kampaku, ‘be very angry’; waarrpungku, ‘hurry’, waa-waarrpungk,u ‘really hurry’.

It has not been possible to record all forms in the dictionary. However, it is hoped that with the above information in mind, the user will be able to work out the meaning of any words whose exact form is not found in the dictionary.

Dialect Variation

As mentioned earlier, the difference between Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra that has led to the different names of the dialects is in the use of the word ngaanya, as opposed to ngaatja, for ‘this’. There are, of course, other vocabulary differences. Words that are not common to the whole Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra area are marked as ‘western’, southern’, ‘northern’ or ‘eastern’, depending on where they are used.

Grammatically, there are only a few differences between the dialects, but we have found that Ngaatjatjarra varies according to whether it is the variety spoken around the Blackstone Ranges area (eastern), the Rawlinson Ranges area (northern), or the Lake Hopkins area (north-eastern). The differences are shown in the table overleaf.

DIALECT VARIATION

Dialect	Ngaanyatjarra	Blackstone Ngaatjatjarra	Rawlinson Ngaatjatjarra	Lake Hopkins Ngaatjatjarra
Transitive Subject	watilu	watingku	watilu	watilu
Present Tense	tjunkula	tjunanyi	tjunkula	tjunkulanyini
Past Continuous	tjunkulanytja	tjunangi	tjunangi	tjunkulanytja
Regressive	katinytja	katingi	katingi	katinytja
Nominal	tjunkutja	tjunkunytja	tjunkutja	tjunkutja
Purpose (different subject)	tjunkutjaku	tjunkunytjaku	tjunkutjaku/ tjunkunytjaku	tjunkutjaku
Aversive	katitjakutarra	katitjakutarra/ -tjakutawarra	katitjakutarra/ -tjakutawarra	katipayingka

Synonyms

You may be surprised at the number of synonyms found in the dictionary. There are cultural reasons for this. When someone dies, his or her name becomes taboo, or maal-maalpa. This is said to be so that relatives will not be made sad by being reminded of their deceased relation. Also, any words that sound similar to the deceased person’s name are not used. They are replaced by words from neighbouring dialects or languages for up to five, ten or fifteen years. The length of time that these taboos are in place varies according to the age of the person who died and how long the bereaved relatives cling to their grief. Usually, the taboos resulting from the death of someone who died in the prime of life will last longer than those resulting from the death of a small child or an old person. Another factor is the phonological complexity of the word used to replace the taboo word. For instance, when someone died whose name sounded like mirrka, ‘food’, one of the words used to replace it was ngarntanykari. But, because of its complexity, it was only in common use for a couple of years, and then most people reverted to using mirrka. The result of various words have come into the language for a time is a large number of synonyms for some concepts. Often words will have exactly the same meaning, but, sometimes, one word will develop additional senses.

Some words in this dictionary are not now in common use, but were substituted for words that were taboo when we first began our research (in 1963). We have included these words with the note ‘substitute word for -----------’. They may be used again in the future following another death.

Names of people

Because people’s names become taboo when someone of the same or a similar name dies, we have only occasionally used them in the example sentences in the dictionary. We have used either: Kunmarnarra, a substitute name for someone whose name has become taboo; Pirnku, a name for a woman or girl who has lost a brother or sister; or Tjitjururru, a name for a man or boy who has lost a brother or sister.

Grammatical summary

We have included the following grammatical summary (which is a summary of the material in the Ngaanyatjarra Language Learning Course) to make clear some of the things explained above.

Non-verbal sentences

1. Statements or questions where the verb ‘to be’ must be supplied in the English translation

e.g.	Nyaapa	ngaanya?		Ngaanya	wayatjarra.
	what	this		this	billycan
	What is this?			This is a billycan.
	Yini	ngananya?		Yini	Kunmarnarranya.
	name	who		name	Kunmarnarra
	What is his name?			His name is Kunmarnarra.
	Wanytjatja	Waminnga?
	where	Wamin
	Where is Wamin?

2. Statements and questions involving possession.

e.g.	Nganaku	kurlarta?		Kunmarnarraku		kurlarta.
	Whose	spear		Kunmarnarra’s		spear
	Whose spear?			Kunmarnarra’s spear.
	Ngayuku	karli.		Nyuntuku	karli		purlkanya.
	my	boomerang		your	boomerang		big
	My boomerang.			Your boomerang is big.

Sentences with intransitive verbs

1. Simple sentence

e.g.	Minarli	pirni-ya	yanu		Waminnga	mapitjangu.
	boy	many	went		Wamin	went
	Lots of boys went.				Wamin went.
	Kunmarnarranya		pitjangu.
	Kunmarnarra		came
	Kunmarnarra came.

2. Purpose Sentence

e.g.	Wati	ngaanya	pitjangu	kapiku.		Pitjangu	tjapilkitja.
	man	this	came	water-for		came	to ask
	This man came for water.					He came to ask.

3. ‘Direction from’

e.g.	Tjukurlalanguru	pitjangu.		Wanarntanguru	pitjangu.
	Tjukurla-from	came		Wanarn-from	came
	He came from Tjukurla.			He came from Wanarn.

4. ‘Direction to’

e.g.	Kungka	pirni-ya	ngurraku	yanu.		Wati	pirni-ya	karrukutu	yanu.
	girl	many	home-to	went		man	many	creek-to	went
	All the girls went home.					Lots of men went to the creek.

5. ‘Place at’

e.g.	Nyinarra	wiltjangka.		Ngarala	kaatanta.
	sitting	shade-in		standing	garden-in
	He is sitting in the shade.			He is standing in the garden.

Sentences with transitive verbs

1. Simple sentence

e.g.	Kunmarnarralu	marlu	tjutupungu.		Wamintu	tirnka	pungu.
	Kunmarnarra	kangaroo	shot		Wamin	goanna	killed
	Kunmarnarra shot the kangaroo.				Wamin killed the goanna.

	Tjilku	kurlunytju	katiku.
	child	little	will bring
	The little child will bring it.

2. Purpose sentence

1. a) Same subject

e.g.	Watjarnu	yankukitjalu.
	said	to go
	He said he would go.

1. b) Different subject

e.g	Watjarnu	wantitjaku.
	said	to leave
	He said to leave it.

3 Adverb 2 in transitive sentence

e.g.	Walykumunulu	yinkama.		Lingkirrtu	watjama
	well	keep singing		loudly	keep speaking
	Keep singing nicely.			Keep speaking loudly.

Sentences with participles

(A participle is a form indicating something that happens immediately prior to something else.)

1 When the verb following is a motion verb

e.g.	Mantjira	katingu.		Palyara	kati.
	having got	brought		having fixed	bring back
	He got it and brought it.			Fix it and bring it back.

	Yarltirra	pitjaku.
	having called	will come
	He’ll call her and come.

2 When the verb following is not a motion verb

e.g.	Warta	mantjiralpi	pungu.
	stick	having got	hit
	He got the stick and hit it.

Sentences with something to avoid

e.g.	Wiltjarnu-rna	kapingkatarra		Ngurlurringu	patjaltjakutarra
	made shelter-I	rain-in case		became afraid	bite-might
	I made a shelter it case it rained.			He became afraid it might bite him.

Circumstantial sentences (cause/time)

e.g.	Mirrka	nintinnyangka	ngalangu.
	food	gave-when	ate
	When she gave him food, he ate it.

	Tjilkuku	wilurru	nintirnu	yurlta	nyinarranyangka.
	child-to	thigh	gave	at home	staying-because
	He gave the child a thigh-part because he had stayed home.

Sentence with final verb

This particular form of the verb mostly occurs with katiku, ‘bring something’ or pitjaku, ‘come’.

e.g.	Nyangka-ya	ngurraku	katinytja.
	so-they	home-to	brought
	So they brought it home.

Verbs with extensive aspect

Verbs with extensive aspect are often used in story telling.

e.g.	Wati	ngaanya	kutipitjangu	marluku	ngurrirayirnu	purtu	wantingu	pitjanytja.
	man	this	went	kangaroo-for	searched	in vain	left	came back
	This man went out and searched for a kangaroo for some time but to no avail, so he gave up and came home.

	Puyirayirnu	wiyarringu
	rained	finished
	It rained for quite a while and then stopped.

	Kungka	pungkulayirnu	nguwanpa	mirrirntanu.
	girl	hit	almost	killed
	He kept on hitting the girl until he almost killed her.

Linkage of verbal sentences with unlike subjects

The conjunction nyangka and the shortened form ka link sentences with different subjects.

e.g.	Kunmarnarranya	nyinaku.	Nyangka	Waminnga	yanku.
	Kunmarnarra	will stay	but	Wamin	will go
	Kunmarnarra will stay. But Wamin will go.

	Watjarnu,	‘Kutipitja-li	kapingka	tjarrpa.’	Ka-pula	yanu.
	said	go-we two	water-in	enter	so-they two	went
	He said, “Let’s go for a swim.” So they went.

How to look up a word

When you can’t find a word which you have heard or read, and assuming that you have the correct spelling, there are two possibilities: a) the identity of the word is disguised by the various endings; or b) it is not listed in the dictionary (because of oversight, or because it is rare or sensitive for some reason[1]). Usually the problem is the first one. Here are some guidelines:

• If the word is a verb, it is listed in the dictionary in the future tense, but of course it might turn up in any of the many possible longer or shorter forms: e.g. wantiku, ‘leave’, may turn up as wantirranytja; pungku, ‘hit’, may turn up as puwa. As you begin to use the dictionary try to familiarise yourself with the verb table on page 6.
• Verbs may begin with the prefixes ma-, ‘away from’, ngalya-, ‘towards’, parra-, ‘around’, or wati-, ‘across’.
• Nouns will often have case-endings attached.
• The word may end with -lta, -nyu, -lkanyu, -palka, -mpanyu or any of a range of endings that can be attached to words. Try stripping suspicious looking letters from the end of the word and see if you are left with a recognisable word. For instance, tamarlpanykayi divides up as tamarlpa-nyka-yi.

The following list of endings may help you to identify the main part of the word.

Ngaanyatjarra and Ngaatjatjarra endings

See individual entries and sub-entries for meanings and other information. Those marked with * are usually shown with a hyphen in printed material.

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[1]  There are some words quite commonly used as expletives, by both men and women, which are not found in the dictionary. This is because they refer to aspects of men’s sacred ceremonies, and men have requested that they not be listed in the dictionary.